孟繁秀 徐鈞
[摘要] 肝移植術(shù)后急性腎功能損傷(acute kidney injury,AKI)是術(shù)后常見(jiàn)并發(fā)癥之一,與術(shù)后死亡率的增加及術(shù)后慢性腎功能衰竭的發(fā)生密切相關(guān)。長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)我們對(duì)肝移植術(shù)后AKI的認(rèn)識(shí)始終模糊不清,主要是因?yàn)樯袩o(wú)被廣泛接受的定義,而針對(duì)終末期肝病的患者,一些常用于評(píng)價(jià)腎臟功能的指標(biāo)均有其局限性,這使得對(duì)術(shù)后AKI的早期發(fā)現(xiàn)、早期處理變得很困難。根據(jù)國(guó)內(nèi)外許多中心的研究,導(dǎo)致肝移植術(shù)后AKI的因素是復(fù)雜的、多方面的。如何有效地預(yù)防、及時(shí)正確地診斷和處理此嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥已成為肝移植界的重要挑戰(zhàn)。
[關(guān)鍵詞] 肝移植術(shù);急性腎損傷;并發(fā)癥;危險(xiǎn)因素
[中圖分類(lèi)號(hào)] R657.3 [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼] A [文章編號(hào)] 1673-9701(2018)01-0159-06
Research status of early acute renal injury after liver transplantation
MENG Fanxiu1 XU Jun2
1.Graduate School, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; 2.Department of General Surgery, Shanxi Tumor Hospital, Taiyuan 030013, China
[Abstract] Acute kidney injury(AKI) after liver transplantation is one of the common complications after operation. It is closely related to the increase of postoperative mortality and the occurrence of postoperative chronic renal failure. For a long time our understanding of AKI after liver transplantation has always been vague, and this is mainly because there is no widely accepted definition. For patients with end-stage liver disease, some of the indicators commonly used to evaluate renal function have their limitations. This makes the early detection and early treatment of postoperative AKI become very difficult. According to the studies at many centers at home and abroad, the factors that lead to AKI after liver transplantation are complicated and multifaceted. How to effectively prevent and diagnose this serious complication in time and correctly has become an important challenge in the field of liver transplantation.
[Key words] Liver transplantation; Acute renal injury; Complications; Risk factors
因手術(shù)技術(shù)、器官保存技術(shù)的不斷改進(jìn),圍術(shù)期管理水平的提高,肝移植患者術(shù)后總體1年生存率可達(dá)86%,術(shù)后5年生存率提高到70%[1],但術(shù)后各種急、慢性并發(fā)癥仍是影響長(zhǎng)期預(yù)后的主要因素。其中,肝移植術(shù)后急性腎功能損傷(acute kidney injury,AKI)是術(shù)后常見(jiàn)并發(fā)癥之一,因診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的不同,各中心報(bào)道的發(fā)病率在17%~95%[2,3],肝移植術(shù)后AKI與死亡率的增加[4,5]與術(shù)后慢性腎功能衰竭[6]的發(fā)生密切相關(guān)。有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,肝移植術(shù)后未并發(fā)AKI的患者28 d和1年死亡率分別是0%和3.9%,而肝移植術(shù)后并發(fā)AKI的患者死亡率增加到15.5%和25.9%[7]。甚至有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,肝移植術(shù)后并發(fā)AKI的患者30 d死亡率高達(dá)50%,若需行腎臟替代治療,死亡率達(dá)90%[8,9]。本文從肝移植受體腎功能的評(píng)估及AKI的診斷及其引起肝移植術(shù)后AKI的危險(xiǎn)因素方面對(duì)此嚴(yán)重的并發(fā)癥進(jìn)行討論,旨在提高對(duì)術(shù)后AKI的認(rèn)識(shí),加強(qiáng)圍手術(shù)期管理,進(jìn)而改善患者的短期及長(zhǎng)期預(yù)后。
1 肝移植受體腎功能的評(píng)估及AKI的診斷
1.1 腎臟的常用血清學(xué)標(biāo)志物
1.1.1 血清肌酐含量(serum creatinine, SCr) SCr是主要由肌肉代謝產(chǎn)生,隨尿液排出,是臨床上廣泛應(yīng)用的評(píng)估腎功能的指標(biāo),其含量可受多種因素影響,包括年齡、種族、性別、體重、肌肉含量、飲食等。在肝硬化患者中,由于肌肉含量降低、肝臟代謝能力減退、腎小管分泌增加、為避免高氨血癥而減少攝入蛋白等原因[7,10-12],SCr常呈現(xiàn)較低水平。在肝硬化患者中使用SCr對(duì)腎臟功能的評(píng)估是不準(zhǔn)確的,基于SCr值的計(jì)算會(huì)高估腎小球?yàn)V過(guò)率(glomerular filtration rate,GFR)[14,15],且SCr升高往往是腎功能受損的晚期指標(biāo)[11,13]。
1.1.2 清除率 菊粉可自由通過(guò)腎小球?yàn)V過(guò)膜,在腎小管與集合管既不被重吸收又不被分泌,因此菊粉清除率等于腎小球?yàn)V過(guò)率。與24 h肌酐清除率(creatinine clearance rate,CrCl)相比,使用菊粉清除率對(duì)GFR進(jìn)行計(jì)算更為精確,尤其是當(dāng)患者GFR較低時(shí)[16]。但針對(duì)于肝硬化患者,由于腎臟功能波動(dòng)較大,且因腹水、水腫、胸腔積液等容積分布異常,使得利用上述外源性物質(zhì)來(lái)評(píng)估腎功能十分困難。
1.1.3 胱抑素C 胱抑素C是機(jī)體所有有核細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的一種短肽類(lèi)物質(zhì),具有諸多優(yōu)點(diǎn):僅經(jīng)腎小球?yàn)V過(guò),不被腎小管分泌,且極少受飲食、肌肉量或炎癥的影響。因此與SCr、外源性標(biāo)記物不同,是公認(rèn)的用于評(píng)價(jià)肝硬化患者腎功能的敏感指標(biāo)[17,18]。Ling Q等[19]對(duì)中國(guó)肝移植受者的數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行分析,基于胱抑素C計(jì)算的估計(jì)腎小球?yàn)V過(guò)率(estimated glomerular filtration rate,eGFR)與真實(shí)GFR非常接近。
1.1.4 血清中性粒細(xì)胞明膠酶相關(guān)載脂蛋白(serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipo-protein,NGAL) NGAL是一種當(dāng)機(jī)體受到刺激時(shí),由受損的腎小管細(xì)胞高表達(dá)的蛋白類(lèi)物質(zhì),可促進(jìn)上皮細(xì)胞再生。以前有研究顯示AKI患者尿NGAL水平可高達(dá)正常值的100倍,近期已被證實(shí)有利于肝移植術(shù)后AKI的診斷[5,20,21]。
1.1.5 腎損傷分子1(kidney injury molecule-1,KIM-1) 是腎臟近曲小管上皮細(xì)胞的一種跨膜糖蛋白,屬于免疫球蛋白。其在受損后再生的腎小管上皮細(xì)胞中表達(dá)顯著增強(qiáng)。KIM-1能迅速、靈敏、特異地反映腎臟損傷及恢復(fù)過(guò)程,期待可成為一種檢測(cè)早期腎損傷的可靠標(biāo)記物。
2 腎功能的評(píng)估
在評(píng)估腎功能時(shí),常從SCr、尿檢(包括顯微鏡檢)、尿蛋白定量、腎臟超聲檢查開(kāi)始。由于SCr在腎臟受損48~72 h以后才有大幅度的升高[22,23],因此,對(duì)于SCr哪怕輕微的升高,也應(yīng)給予足夠的重視(值得注意的是,在肝病患者中,若基于SCr進(jìn)行評(píng)估,往往會(huì)高估其GFR)。尿液檢查可用于所有腎功能不全的患者,24 h蛋白尿>500 mg或異常尿沉渣均提示腎臟實(shí)質(zhì)病變。腎臟超聲檢查可根據(jù)一些結(jié)構(gòu)性改變?nèi)缙べ|(zhì)變薄、腎臟萎縮,用以檢出慢性腎臟疾病。
當(dāng)強(qiáng)烈懷疑腎臟實(shí)質(zhì)病變時(shí),腎組織活檢可有助于診斷,但需慎重考慮與之相關(guān)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),如出血、感染等。肝病患者,尤其是肝硬化患者,因凝血功能障礙、血小板減少等原因,面臨更大的出血風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。ORiordan A等[24]對(duì)肝移植術(shù)后腎臟功能不全的患者進(jìn)行腎組織活檢,有17%患者并發(fā)大出血,需要輸血或介入栓塞治療。因此在高危人群中進(jìn)行腎組織活檢的有創(chuàng)檢查,需要認(rèn)真考慮風(fēng)險(xiǎn)-獲益比。
3 急性腎損傷的診斷
2012年改善全球腎臟病預(yù)后組織(Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes,KDIGO)對(duì)AKI的定義和分級(jí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行統(tǒng)一,綜合了之前廣泛應(yīng)用于臨床的ADQI(Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative)診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及AKIN(Acute Kidney Injury Network)診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)發(fā)布了《KDIGO急性腎損傷臨床實(shí)踐指南》,使之更利于AKI的預(yù)防、診斷、治療和研究。該指南明確了AKI的定義并制定了相應(yīng)的分期標(biāo)準(zhǔn):在48 h內(nèi)SCr上升≥26.5 μmol/L;和(或)已知或假定腎功能損害發(fā)生在7 d之內(nèi),SCr上升至≥基礎(chǔ)值的1.5倍;和(或)尿量<0.5 mL/(kg·h),持續(xù)6 h的即可診斷為AKI[25],且如果Scr和尿量分級(jí)不一致時(shí),采納較高的分級(jí)。但該標(biāo)準(zhǔn)是否適用于肝病患者,仍需進(jìn)一步研究。
4 導(dǎo)致肝移植術(shù)后AKI的相關(guān)危險(xiǎn)因素
4.1 術(shù)前終末期肝病模型(model for end-stage liver disease,MELD)
MELD主要用于評(píng)估受體接收肝移植手術(shù)必要性及緊急性,并廣泛適用于預(yù)測(cè)慢性肝臟疾病患者3個(gè)月的死亡率[26]。于2002年被美國(guó)器官獲取和移植管理機(jī)構(gòu)(UNOS)作為器官分配的依據(jù)。該公式的計(jì)算僅包含3個(gè)指標(biāo),血清肌酐(SCr)、血清膽紅素、國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化比值(international normalized ratio,INR),它將易于獲得且客觀的指標(biāo)作為參數(shù),消除了等待供體時(shí)間的因素。相關(guān)研究結(jié)果表明[4,27],MELD評(píng)分是術(shù)后早期AKI發(fā)生的影響因素。
但其具有以下局限性:①設(shè)計(jì)MELD時(shí),將已有腎疾病患者排除在外[28];且并未區(qū)分急性腎損傷(AKI)與慢性腎臟疾?。–KD);鑒于肝移植術(shù)前的腎功能不全是患者生存率的重要影響因素(見(jiàn)后),所以該評(píng)分對(duì)肝移植術(shù)后AKI的預(yù)測(cè)功能需進(jìn)一步討論;③性別因素未考慮在內(nèi),有報(bào)道稱(chēng),因女性SCr值較男性低,在MELD評(píng)分中占劣勢(shì),接受肝移植手術(shù)的可能性較男性小,且3個(gè)月死亡率較男性高[29]。
4.2終末期肝病(end-stage liver disease,ESLD)
在某些情況下,終末期肝病的病因似乎與術(shù)后AKI的發(fā)生有關(guān)。非酒精性脂肪性肝炎(non-alcoholic steatohepatitis,NASH)、非酒精性脂肪性肝?。╪on-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD)與其他導(dǎo)致終末期肝病的病因相比,與肝移植術(shù)后AKI的發(fā)生有更強(qiáng)的相關(guān)性[30]。目前有多種假設(shè)機(jī)制來(lái)解釋這種相關(guān)性,其中包括炎性、脂肪變的肝臟產(chǎn)生多種促炎癥介質(zhì),全身胰島素抵抗和動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化等[31,32],但具體的分子機(jī)制仍未被闡明。
4.3術(shù)前已存在的腎功能不全
術(shù)前腎功能不全可引起多種不良的預(yù)后,包括醫(yī)療費(fèi)用的增加、移植后膿毒血癥、更長(zhǎng)的ICU停留時(shí)間、術(shù)后透析治療等[33]。有研究顯示[34],肝移植術(shù)后發(fā)生AKI患者與未發(fā)生者相比,術(shù)前SCr水平更高,且術(shù)前SCr值為肝移植術(shù)后發(fā)生AKI的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素。在嚴(yán)重肝臟疾病患者中,腎功能不全是常見(jiàn)的合并癥,在臨床實(shí)踐中,不僅要做到早期發(fā)現(xiàn),更重要的是對(duì)其不同病因做出判斷,因?yàn)獒槍?duì)性的治療及預(yù)后情況各有不同。
肝腎綜合征(hepatorenal syndrome, HRS),是失代償期肝硬化及肝衰竭的嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥之一,是導(dǎo)致患者術(shù)后死亡的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素。其病理生理學(xué)改變主要是各種原因?qū)е碌挠行аh(huán)血量減少和腎小動(dòng)脈收縮導(dǎo)致的腎臟灌注不足。有多種機(jī)制參與其中,包括腎交感神經(jīng)張力增高,腎素-血管緊張素-醛固酮系統(tǒng)的激活,抗利尿激素的過(guò)度分泌,激肽系統(tǒng)活動(dòng)異常以及多種細(xì)胞因子的產(chǎn)生與激活等[34]。大多數(shù)HRS無(wú)腎臟的器質(zhì)性損害,但后續(xù)可繼發(fā)急性腎小管壞死,導(dǎo)致不可逆性的器質(zhì)性腎病。以往據(jù)HRS進(jìn)展速度被分為1型和2型HRS,其中1型HRS多發(fā)生于急性肝衰竭患者,進(jìn)展迅速,且預(yù)后極差,2015年國(guó)際腹水俱樂(lè)部(ICA)將1型HRS定義為AKI的一種特殊類(lèi)型,即AKI-HRS[35]。
諸多對(duì)肝移植受體圍術(shù)期進(jìn)行的腎組織活檢結(jié)果表明,終末期肝病患者并發(fā)腎功能不全的原因絕不僅限于HRS,還包括IgA腎病、乙型病毒性肝炎相關(guān)性腎病等[8,36,37]。
4.4肝移植術(shù)中的再灌注綜合征(post-reperfusion syndrome,PRS)
PRS已被認(rèn)為是肝移植術(shù)后AKI的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素[38,39],其特點(diǎn)包括循環(huán)系統(tǒng)功能紊亂和代謝改變,可導(dǎo)致多器官功能受損,尤其是腎臟損傷。再灌注綜合征的發(fā)生與發(fā)展中,最主要的機(jī)制是缺血再灌注損傷(ischemia-reperfusion injury,IRI)。PRS誘發(fā)AKI的主要病理生理學(xué)機(jī)制是血流動(dòng)力學(xué)改變和全身炎癥反應(yīng)導(dǎo)致的腎小管細(xì)胞死亡[40,41]。肝移植術(shù)中PRS主要與供受體特征、移植物質(zhì)量、手術(shù)操作等多種因素相關(guān)[42]。
4.4.1 供體特征 供體主要來(lái)源有循環(huán)衰竭死亡患者(donation after circulatory death,DCD)、腦死亡患者(donation after brain death,DBD),DCD供體與傳統(tǒng)的DBD供體相比,熱缺血時(shí)間更長(zhǎng)。Leithead JA等[43]在2012年發(fā)表一項(xiàng)關(guān)于DCD供體肝移植術(shù)后AKI的研究,結(jié)果顯示:與DBD供體相比,DCD供體肝移植術(shù)后AKI的發(fā)生率更高(53.4% vs. 31.8%)。且圍術(shù)期天門(mén)冬氨酸轉(zhuǎn)氨酶(aspartate aminotransferase,ASAT)峰值是術(shù)后腎臟功能的獨(dú)立預(yù)測(cè)因子,而ASAT是肝臟IRI的代表性指標(biāo),可見(jiàn),熱缺血導(dǎo)致的移植物損傷,可通過(guò)驅(qū)動(dòng)全身炎癥反應(yīng),促進(jìn)術(shù)中、術(shù)后AKI的發(fā)生。此外,熱缺血還會(huì)增加移植物對(duì)冷缺血損害的易感性[44]。
4.4.2 手術(shù)因素 肝移植手術(shù)目前兩大常規(guī)術(shù)式是原位肝移植術(shù)和背馱式肝移植術(shù),后者并發(fā)術(shù)后AKI的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)更低[45],可能原因:①背馱式手術(shù)在術(shù)中保留或部分保留下腔靜脈的血流,與原位肝移植術(shù)相比,對(duì)循環(huán)穩(wěn)定性的影響更小,從而對(duì)各臟器的影響也較小,②雖然對(duì)下腔靜脈血流的保留并不能預(yù)防術(shù)中低血壓,但是在無(wú)肝期的門(mén)體分流可減少內(nèi)臟充血,理論上可以減少內(nèi)臟器官的缺血以及隨之而來(lái)的再灌注損傷。但對(duì)于術(shù)前已合并腎損傷的肝移植受者,選擇單獨(dú)肝移植(liver transplantation alone,LTA)、肝腎聯(lián)合移植(simultaneous liver-kidney transplantation,SLKT),目前尚缺少多中心、可信服的統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)[36,46]。
4.5 術(shù)中低血壓
有許多文獻(xiàn)表明術(shù)中升壓藥的使用是術(shù)后AKI的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素[47,48]。在肝硬化晚期患者,門(mén)脈高壓導(dǎo)致多種舒血管因子(如NO、前列環(huán)素)的釋放及肝內(nèi)、外分流,使體循環(huán)充盈不足,所以肝硬化晚期的患者往往呈現(xiàn)高動(dòng)力循環(huán)狀態(tài)。術(shù)中低血壓與以下情況相關(guān):①隨著病肝的移除,機(jī)體出現(xiàn)劇烈的血流動(dòng)力學(xué)紊亂,靜脈回流較前顯著減少(除個(gè)別肝臟腫大的情況外),②術(shù)中大量失血;③下腔靜脈的阻斷減少靜脈回流(約60%),并減少心輸出量(4%~60%);④下腔靜脈鉗夾復(fù)位以后所致的一過(guò)性的嚴(yán)重低血壓。所有這些導(dǎo)致血流動(dòng)力學(xué)不穩(wěn)的因素?zé)o疑都會(huì)導(dǎo)致腎臟灌注不足,從而造成術(shù)中或術(shù)后的AKI。
4.6 術(shù)中輸血
貧血、術(shù)中輸血是肝移植術(shù)后AKI的危險(xiǎn)因素[44,48]。可能的相關(guān)因素如下:①輸血的原因,如貧血、術(shù)中失血、凝血功能障礙等,均會(huì)通過(guò)多種機(jī)制對(duì)腎臟細(xì)胞造成損害[49,50]。②許多研究表明,輸入的紅細(xì)胞在受者體內(nèi)貯存的過(guò)程中會(huì)發(fā)生多種功能或結(jié)構(gòu)改變,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)腎損傷的發(fā)展[51]。其中的機(jī)制包括:ATP和2,3-DPG的消耗、產(chǎn)生NO的能力受損、血管內(nèi)皮粘附因子的增加、磷脂釋放、促炎因子的積累、產(chǎn)生游離血紅蛋白和鐵離子等[51,52]。而且,紅細(xì)胞在貯存過(guò)程中會(huì)有大約30%因結(jié)構(gòu)改變而被巨噬細(xì)胞吞噬[53]。最終,貯存的紅細(xì)胞在被輸入的最初幾個(gè)小時(shí)內(nèi),反而會(huì)減少組織供氧,加重氧化應(yīng)激,促進(jìn)炎癥反應(yīng)[54,55]。與之前相比,一些學(xué)者甚至建議增加術(shù)中縮血管藥物的使用以減少輸血需求。顯然,在治療過(guò)程中,必須格外注重止血和優(yōu)化凝血功能。
4.7 膿毒癥
膿毒癥引起AKI的確切的病理生理機(jī)制尚不清晰。與腎臟灌注不足相比,膿毒癥相關(guān)的AKI似乎與腎內(nèi)血流重新分布關(guān)系更為密切。此外,最近的研究結(jié)果表明,膿毒癥導(dǎo)致AKI的病理生理機(jī)制是不同于非感染性AKI的[56]。另一方面,對(duì)膿毒癥患者足量補(bǔ)液造成的體液超負(fù)荷也與AKI相關(guān)[57]。
4.8使用免疫抑制劑
鈣調(diào)磷酸酶抑制劑(calcineurin inhibitors,CINs),如環(huán)孢素A、他克莫司是肝移植術(shù)后免疫維持治療的最基本的藥物之一,其具有腎毒性,常導(dǎo)致急性或慢性腎損傷。CNIs誘導(dǎo)的AKI主要是因?yàn)槟I小球入球小動(dòng)脈收縮,腎血流量減少導(dǎo)致的GFR下降,常發(fā)生在開(kāi)始服藥治療的早期,當(dāng)劑量減少或停用后一般可以恢復(fù)。相比之下,晚期出現(xiàn)的CNIs相關(guān)的慢性腎功能衰竭和間質(zhì)性腎炎有關(guān),通常不可逆[58]。然而,在多個(gè)研究中均未發(fā)現(xiàn)CINs是術(shù)后AKI的獨(dú)立預(yù)測(cè)因子。可能是因?yàn)锳KI具有劑量和濃度依賴(lài)性,在肝移植患者使用時(shí)往往需要長(zhǎng)期監(jiān)測(cè)血藥濃度。還有研究表明,腎臟保護(hù)性免疫方案(他克莫司血藥濃度5~8 ng/mL)與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)免疫方案(他克莫司血藥濃度8~10 ng/mL)相比,可以顯著降低術(shù)后AKI的發(fā)生率[43,59-61]。
綜上所述,對(duì)終末期肝病患者腎功能的評(píng)價(jià)尚缺乏特異性強(qiáng)、靈敏度高的生物學(xué)指標(biāo),動(dòng)態(tài)監(jiān)測(cè)血清肌酐含量仍是目前應(yīng)用最廣泛的腎功能評(píng)估手段,各種新型生物學(xué)指標(biāo)仍待進(jìn)一步研究。目前對(duì)肝移植術(shù)后AKI無(wú)統(tǒng)一的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn),現(xiàn)有的基于血清肌酐含量的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)有其局限性。肝移植術(shù)后AKI是多種因素共同作用的結(jié)果。術(shù)前對(duì)患者進(jìn)行準(zhǔn)確評(píng)估,嚴(yán)格把握手術(shù)指征,并對(duì)各種高危因素進(jìn)行干預(yù),盡量恢復(fù)內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)態(tài)。術(shù)中選擇合理手術(shù)方式,加強(qiáng)圍術(shù)期管理,維持血流動(dòng)力學(xué)的穩(wěn)定,術(shù)后選擇腎臟保護(hù)性免疫方案等可以明顯降低術(shù)后AKI發(fā)生率,顯著改善患者預(yù)后。
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(收稿日期:2017-09-04)