提 要:在總結(jié)語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域249個(gè)常用學(xué)術(shù)詞組后,發(fā)現(xiàn)它們與AFL的差別源于后者包括大量的自然科學(xué)語(yǔ)料、偏重于FTW、在同義詞詞組選擇上有不同的偏好。在語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域內(nèi)部,詞典比教材更接近AFL,更多地指向背景的抽象框架屬性、偏重于時(shí)空指示、多用同位結(jié)構(gòu)、突出對(duì)信息本身的呈現(xiàn)、通過(guò)聯(lián)想拓寬知識(shí)面、呈現(xiàn)給讀者更多的學(xué)術(shù)資源而不是總結(jié)差異、更多地使用被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)、不挑明較深層的因果關(guān)系而是由讀者自己去領(lǐng)悟和發(fā)現(xiàn)。
關(guān)鍵詞:語(yǔ)言學(xué);語(yǔ)域;學(xué)術(shù)詞組;詞典;教材
中圖分類號(hào):H030 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A 文章編號(hào):1000-0100(2024)01-0001-9
DOI編碼:10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2024.01.001
A Study of Academic Phrases in the Register of Linguistics
Liu Yu-hong Yin Ming
(School of Foreign Studies, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210097, China;
Taizhou College of Nanjing Normal University, Taizhou 225300, China)
The concluding of 249 academic phrases in the register of linguistics reveals that they differ from AFL in that the latter used too much data from natural sciences, biases toward TWL, have different choices in synonyms. Within the register of linguistics, dictionaries, as a contrast with textbooks, have more in common with AFL in embodying the features of academic styles, associate more closely with ground-related intangible frame features and temporal-spatial deictics, use more appositive structures, emphasize the presentation of information proper, broaden the knowledge scope through association, provide more academic resources rather than summarize the differences, use more passive structures, leave intact the possible causal relationships and reserve them to be probed and discovered by the readers.
Key words:linguistics; register; academic phrases; dictionary; textbook
1 引言
Sinclair(1991:18-25, 2004:1-8)發(fā)現(xiàn),語(yǔ)言使用大量的準(zhǔn)預(yù)制詞組(semi-preconstructed phrases),它們是口頭話語(yǔ)和書(shū)面文本中相對(duì)約定俗成的語(yǔ)塊。構(gòu)成語(yǔ)塊的詞匯數(shù)量從2個(gè)至5個(gè)不等,所以被統(tǒng)稱為n-gram,其中n是詞匯數(shù),如二詞詞組和三詞詞組分別稱為2-gram和3-gram. 由于不同學(xué)科在表述內(nèi)容和表述習(xí)慣上的特殊性,以及學(xué)科之間的相對(duì)封閉性,每個(gè)學(xué)科都有一批在本學(xué)科使用頻率較高的學(xué)術(shù)詞組。本文的任務(wù)是從現(xiàn)有的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù)出發(fā),通過(guò)語(yǔ)料對(duì)比,歸納出語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),在此基礎(chǔ)上再考察語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域內(nèi)部的不同文體(如語(yǔ)言學(xué)詞典與語(yǔ)言學(xué)教材)在學(xué)術(shù)詞組選用上的差異,探討差異的產(chǎn)生原因。
2 學(xué)術(shù)詞組研究的歷史
學(xué)術(shù)詞組研究是在通用詞組(general service phrase)基礎(chǔ)上的專門化研究。通用詞組被冠以不同的名稱,如詞匯束(lexical bundles)(Breeze 2013:235; Gilmore, Millar 2018:10; Hyland 2008:12)或詞簇(word clusters)(Le, Harrington 2015:48-50),或者是詞組框架(phrase frame: p-frame)(R?mer 2010:101)。在通用詞組庫(kù)的研制方面,較著名的成果是Ron和Norbert(2012:308)的“詞組庫(kù)”(Phrasal Expressions List:PHRASE List),包括505個(gè)非透明的多詞詞組。
在通用詞組庫(kù)研制的基礎(chǔ)上,學(xué)術(shù)界開(kāi)啟對(duì)于學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù)的研制,比如Simpson-Vlach和Ellis(2010:505)的學(xué)術(shù)性程式化詞組庫(kù)(Academic Formulaic List, 簡(jiǎn)稱AFL)、Ackermann和Chen (2013:242)的學(xué)術(shù)搭配庫(kù)(the Academic Collocations List,簡(jiǎn)稱ACL),Morley(2014:75)的“學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù)”(Academic Phrasebank)、Green和Lambert(2019:3-9)基于8個(gè)學(xué)科中學(xué)課本的中學(xué)生詞組庫(kù)(the Secondary Phrase List,簡(jiǎn)稱SPL)。
近年來(lái),學(xué)術(shù)詞組研究又進(jìn)入到專門學(xué)科學(xué)術(shù)詞組領(lǐng)域,比如Gilmore和Millar(2018:8-12)從大量的土木專業(yè)論文中提取3至6個(gè)詞的詞匯束,列出包括257個(gè)詞組的土木專業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),Cunningham (2017:74-81)對(duì)128篇數(shù)學(xué)論文中的詞組框架進(jìn)行統(tǒng)計(jì),疏理出包括180個(gè)數(shù)學(xué)專業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)詞組的清單,Le和Harrington (2015:45-61) 以124篇應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)的實(shí)證性研究論文中的討論部分為語(yǔ)料選擇詞組,研制出一個(gè)包括64個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)詞組的詞組庫(kù)。
綜上所述,詞組研究經(jīng)歷了從通用詞組到學(xué)術(shù)詞組的演進(jìn),又經(jīng)歷了從通用學(xué)術(shù)詞組到專門學(xué)科學(xué)術(shù)詞組的變化(劉宇紅 2021a:17-22, 2021b:38-45, 劉宇紅 殷銘 2021a:11-19, 2021b:29-40, 2022:47-54, 劉宇紅 王懌旦 2022:11-16)。但是,語(yǔ)言學(xué)作為詞組學(xué)(phraseology)的學(xué)科母體,語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域?qū)W術(shù)詞組的研究幾乎是一個(gè)空白(Le, Harrington 2015:45-61)。既沒(méi)有歸納出語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),也沒(méi)有對(duì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域各種文體學(xué)術(shù)詞組的使用狀況做對(duì)比研究。
3 語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域?qū)W術(shù)詞組庫(kù)的研制方法
研制語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),可以有兩條路徑:方法之一是選擇一種在學(xué)術(shù)界被普遍認(rèn)可的通用型學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),排除不屬于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的那一部分學(xué)術(shù)詞組,建立語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù);另一種方法是另起爐灶,從大規(guī)模語(yǔ)料中遴選出語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組。我們選擇前一種相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)單的辦法,后一種辦法留給后來(lái)諸賢去完成。被普遍認(rèn)可的通用型學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),我們挑選AFL(Simpson-Vlach, Ellis 2010)。Golparvar和Barabadi(2020:3)贊譽(yù)AFL在制作的合理性和有用性上可以與AWL(Academic Word List)(Coxhead 2000:213-238)媲美。Simpson-Vlach和Ellis(2010:487-512)在制作AFL時(shí)使用210萬(wàn)字的語(yǔ)料,涉及人文與藝術(shù)諸學(xué)科(約36萬(wàn)字)、各門社會(huì)科學(xué)(約89萬(wàn)字)、自然科學(xué)與醫(yī)藥學(xué)(約51萬(wàn)字)、技術(shù)與工程科學(xué)(約35萬(wàn)字)。所以,AFL是一個(gè)貫通各個(gè)學(xué)科的通用型的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù),具有普遍的代表性和完整性。正因如此,它的學(xué)術(shù)詞組規(guī)模必定遠(yuǎn)多于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域?qū)嶋H使用的學(xué)術(shù)詞組數(shù)量,這就為我們排除不屬于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組提供研究思路。
在統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)術(shù)詞組時(shí),AFL的兩位作者(同上:492)采用排除最低收錄范圍的作法,即每百萬(wàn)字中出現(xiàn)次數(shù)小于等于10次的詞組不計(jì)入AFL中。
最終的AFL詞組庫(kù)分為3部分:第一部分是207個(gè)“核心AFL詞組”(Core AFL Academic Formulas),包括在書(shū)面學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)話和口頭學(xué)術(shù)報(bào)告中均常用的詞組;第二部分是200個(gè)“書(shū)面AFL詞組”(Written AFL Top 200),第三部分是200個(gè)“口頭AFL詞組”(Spoken AFL Top 200),總數(shù)為607個(gè)。由于我們采樣的語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)料都是書(shū)面文體,所以我們只采用“核心AFL詞組”和“書(shū)面AFL詞組”作為對(duì)比的參照系,總數(shù)是407個(gè),具體見(jiàn)文末附錄。
在研制語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù)時(shí),我們選擇如下4種著作作為語(yǔ)料:
(1) Bussmann(1996/2000)的Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics(下文簡(jiǎn)稱為“詞典”),掃描后通過(guò)OCR軟件轉(zhuǎn)換成doc文本,人工校對(duì)后再去掉標(biāo)題、前言、序跋、頁(yè)眉、參考文獻(xiàn)等內(nèi)容后(下面幾種教材的處理遵循相同的原則,教材還去掉目錄、腳注、課后作業(yè)和文本中的大段舉例等),統(tǒng)計(jì)該書(shū)字?jǐn)?shù)約為22.8萬(wàn)字;
(2)Kracht(2008)的Introduction to Linguistics,字?jǐn)?shù)近七萬(wàn)字;
(3)Saussure(1983)的Course in General Linguistics,字?jǐn)?shù)約三萬(wàn)字;
(4)胡壯麟(2017)的《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》(第五版),字?jǐn)?shù)近十二萬(wàn)。
我們的統(tǒng)計(jì)方法,是用AFL的407個(gè)詞組分別在詞典的22.8萬(wàn)字和3本教材的22萬(wàn)字中進(jìn)行匹配和統(tǒng)計(jì),見(jiàn)表1。右側(cè)兩列是把詞典和3種教材中的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)折算成100萬(wàn)字篇幅時(shí)的數(shù)值并取整數(shù),以便與AFL詞頻對(duì)比。
在詞典和教材中匹配成功的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,與207個(gè)“核心AFL詞組”和200個(gè)“書(shū)面AFL學(xué)術(shù)詞組”的比較結(jié)果如表2。
如表2所示,在詞典中匹配成功的207個(gè)詞組,與207個(gè)“核心AFL詞組”的出現(xiàn)頻率對(duì)比沒(méi)有顯著性差異(0.490gt;0.05),但是詞典中匹配成功的200個(gè)詞組與200個(gè)“書(shū)面AFL學(xué)術(shù)詞組”對(duì)比有顯著性差異(0.045lt;0.05);另一方面,在教材中匹配成功的207個(gè)詞組與“核心AFL詞組”對(duì)比,有顯著性差異(0.001lt;0.05),但是在教材中匹配成功的200個(gè)詞組與“書(shū)面AFL學(xué)術(shù)詞組”對(duì)比卻沒(méi)有顯著性差異(0.199gt;0.05)。在顯著性差異上的這種矛盾局面,證明AFL數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)并不完全適用于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域,我們必須找到其中的原因。為此,我們改變統(tǒng)計(jì)方法:我們參照Simpson-Vlach和Ellis(2010:492)過(guò)濾超低詞頻的標(biāo)準(zhǔn),設(shè)計(jì)本研究的過(guò)濾標(biāo)準(zhǔn),即4本著作的詞頻總次數(shù)小于或等于10,并且有兩本著作的統(tǒng)計(jì)次數(shù)同時(shí)為0,或者4本語(yǔ)料統(tǒng)計(jì)的總次數(shù)小于或等于5,并且有兩本語(yǔ)料的統(tǒng)計(jì)次數(shù)小于或等于1時(shí),這樣超低詞頻的詞組不計(jì)入語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組庫(kù)。
按照這一標(biāo)準(zhǔn),207個(gè)核心AFL詞組中,排除36個(gè)余下171個(gè);200個(gè)書(shū)面AFL詞組排除122個(gè)余下78,兩類共余下249個(gè),它們就是語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域常用的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,參見(jiàn)附錄。
SPSS統(tǒng)計(jì)發(fā)現(xiàn)(見(jiàn)表3):詞典中的學(xué)術(shù)詞組與171個(gè)核心 AFL 詞組相比沒(méi)有顯著性差異(sig=0.144gt;0.05),與 78個(gè)書(shū)面AFL詞組相比,也沒(méi)有顯著性差異(0.056gt;0.05);但是教材與 171個(gè)核心詞組相比,有顯著性差異(0.001lt;0.05),與 78個(gè)書(shū)面AFL詞組相比,也有顯著性差異(0.001lt;0.05)。
對(duì)比表2和表3的數(shù)據(jù),可以得出結(jié)論:語(yǔ)言學(xué)詞典更能體現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域?qū)W術(shù)文體的特征,而教材與學(xué)術(shù)文體有較大差異,是不夠典型的學(xué)術(shù)文本。另一方面,由于詞典與171個(gè)核心AFL 詞組和 78個(gè)書(shū)面AFL詞組都沒(méi)有顯著性差異,同時(shí),教材與171個(gè)核心AFL詞組和 78個(gè)書(shū)面AFL詞組都有顯著性差異,所以在下文的比較中,我們把 171個(gè)核心AFL詞組和78個(gè)書(shū)面AFL 詞組累加成 249個(gè)AFL詞組,并分析對(duì)比249個(gè)AFL詞組中各種功能范疇在詞典和教材中的分布和頻次。
4 語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域?qū)W術(shù)詞組的功能類型對(duì)比
Simpson-Vlach和Ellis (同上:505)把學(xué)術(shù)詞組分為3種語(yǔ)言功能類型,即指稱詞組(Referential Expression)、態(tài)度詞組(Stance Expressions)和話語(yǔ)連接詞組(Discourse Organizing Expressions),每一種功能類型又細(xì)分為多種次類,共18個(gè)次類,見(jiàn)表4。表4還體現(xiàn)了18個(gè)次類在AFL、詞典與教材中的分布情況。表4中的“不相上下”,是指在詞典和3本教材的詞頻上相差小于或等于20的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,列出“不相上下”的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,是為了對(duì)比“在詞典中更多”和“在教材中更多”的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,總結(jié)詞典和教材這兩種文體在學(xué)術(shù)詞組選用上的差別,這一內(nèi)容留待第6節(jié)來(lái)分析,本節(jié)只關(guān)注功能類型的對(duì)比。
我們先看A類詞組,可以發(fā)現(xiàn)3條規(guī)律:第一,在A類詞組中,A1、A4、A5數(shù)量比較接近(另有A7相同)。以A1為例,大部分詞組都包含或隱藏一個(gè)抽象的框架特征,比如[a/the] form of中的form, (as) a function (of)中的function, (on) the basis (of)中的basis, in relation to中的relation, 這幾十種框架特征是所有學(xué)術(shù)文本不可缺少的,受特定語(yǔ)域的影響較小。同樣,所有的學(xué)術(shù)文體都需要對(duì)研究對(duì)象的認(rèn)定(如is the case, in terms of)和對(duì)研究?jī)?nèi)容的聚焦(如with respect to, such as the)(見(jiàn)A4),也離不開(kāi)各種求異的對(duì)比(如as opposed to, the difference between)等,以及求同的比較(如the same as, in the same)(見(jiàn)A5)。這些共同點(diǎn)是由學(xué)術(shù)文體共同的使命和研究方法所決定的。
第二,A2、A3等次類體現(xiàn)出語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的特異性。比如,對(duì)“A2有形框架特征”來(lái)說(shuō),AFL包含the rate of, the amount of, (the) size of (the), an increase in, the high levels of, over a period of等詞組;同樣,對(duì)“A3數(shù)量確認(rèn)”來(lái)說(shuō),AFL中有(a) small number (of), (a) wide range (of), little or no, in a number of, in both cases, a high degree, (the) total number (of), (there) are a number (of)等詞組。這兩種次類在語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域出現(xiàn)次數(shù)為0或因詞頻超低而被過(guò)濾,原因是AFL的語(yǔ)料中包括大量的自然科學(xué)語(yǔ)料,自然科學(xué)研究的量化研究傳統(tǒng)要求對(duì)客體的速度、型號(hào)、數(shù)量、等級(jí)有明確的概括,但是對(duì)于語(yǔ)言學(xué)來(lái)說(shuō),量化研究只有少數(shù)的實(shí)證研究才有涉及。
第三,AFL中的許多A類詞組,它們的詞頻較低,只是因?yàn)樗鼈冇休^高的“詞組教學(xué)值”(即FTW)才被AFL選中。在表5中,有灰色底紋的詞組是AFL所有但是不屬于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組。
至于B部分和C部分的詞組,我們發(fā)現(xiàn),不同學(xué)科對(duì)同一功能類型的同義詞詞組有不同的取舍偏好,比如對(duì)于“B1模糊限制語(yǔ)”來(lái)說(shuō),語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域更多地使用it may be和there may be等形式,is likely to, it is likely that, it appears that等同義詞卻因?yàn)樵~頻太低而被過(guò)濾,說(shuō)明它們?cè)谡Z(yǔ)言學(xué)以外的語(yǔ)域中更常用;同樣,對(duì)于“C4 原因與結(jié)果”來(lái)說(shuō),due to the和due to the fact that是語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的常用學(xué)術(shù)詞組,for this reason,as a consequence,as a result of the 等同義詞也是在語(yǔ)言學(xué)以外的語(yǔ)域中更常用。
5 “在詞典中更多”與“在教材中更多”的比較
接下來(lái),我們要對(duì)比表4中的兩種類型,即“在詞典中更多”與“在教材中更多”的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,我們挑選表4中數(shù)量最大的5種詞組類型來(lái)進(jìn)行詞典與教材的比較,即A1無(wú)形框架特征、A4認(rèn)定與焦點(diǎn)、A5對(duì)比與比較、B4能力與可能性、C4原因與結(jié)果。
5.1 “無(wú)形框架特征”的比較
“無(wú)形框架特征”的學(xué)術(shù)詞組數(shù)量最大,在詞典和3本教材中共出現(xiàn)82個(gè)(見(jiàn)附錄),占249個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)詞組的近33%,其中“在詞典中更多”的有30個(gè),“在教材中更多”的詞組有27個(gè),說(shuō)明在詞典中常用的詞組在教材中較不常用,相反,在教材中常用的在詞典中較不常用。具體來(lái)說(shuō),體現(xiàn)了如下3種差別:第一,“在詞典中更多”的詞組,比如on the basis of,based on the,is based on,based on a,depending on the,depends on the等,它們的補(bǔ)語(yǔ)是指稱關(guān)系的背景(ground),比如on the basis of X是在X這種無(wú)形框架的基礎(chǔ)上才能談?wù)摕o(wú)形框架特征basis. 相反,“在教材中更多”的詞組,比如with respect to,by virtue of,in terms of a等,它們的補(bǔ)語(yǔ)都是指稱關(guān)系的圖形(figure),比如with respect to X中的X是無(wú)形框架特征,無(wú)形框架本身是with respect to. 這種對(duì)比說(shuō)明“在詞典中更多”的詞組具有更宏觀的視野和背景,而“在教材中更多”的詞組具有更具體的范圍和指稱對(duì)象。第二,“在詞典中更多”的詞組使用時(shí)空指示(deictics)較弱的定冠詞,如the form of,the basis of,the distribution of,“在教材中更多”的詞組可以包含當(dāng)下的時(shí)空指示語(yǔ),即使用this等限定語(yǔ),如in this case,in this way等。說(shuō)明詞典中學(xué)術(shù)詞組的抽象框架特征更普適,而教材詞組的抽象框架特征更具體。第三“在詞典中更多”的詞組關(guān)注宏觀的概念結(jié)構(gòu),如結(jié)構(gòu)、功能、語(yǔ)境、分布與能力等,如the structure of,function of the,form of the,in the context,the distribution of,the ability to.“在教材中更多”的詞組多用指向具體概念的同位結(jié)構(gòu),如the fact that,in the sense that,the idea that,the notion of,fact that the,the issue of,such a way that. 其中的原因是,教材面對(duì)的是學(xué)生,學(xué)生需要更多的解釋,同位結(jié)構(gòu)既可以實(shí)現(xiàn)解釋功能又可以最大限度地節(jié)省篇幅;相反,詞典可以直接呈現(xiàn)抽象的描述性概念,默認(rèn)讀者有較高的專業(yè)水平。
5.2 “認(rèn)定與焦點(diǎn)”的比較
“認(rèn)定與焦點(diǎn)”類詞組在詞典和教材中反差最大,“在詞典中更多”的詞組只有5個(gè),“在教材中更多”的詞組有39個(gè),見(jiàn)附錄。
“在教材中更多”的詞組包含幾乎所有的關(guān)系過(guò)程詞組,如this is a,is that the,is not a,that this is,this is an,which is not,that we are,is to be,is that it,is that there,is not the,that is the,it is not,it can be,this is not,that there is no,it has been,which can be,is that it is等,“在詞典中更多”的詞組只有is the case和is for the.
系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué) (Thompson 2000:39-40)認(rèn)為,關(guān)系過(guò)程體現(xiàn)信息的給予,教材作者在提供語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的相關(guān)信息時(shí),在心智中有一群范疇確定、身份明確的聽(tīng)話人,即語(yǔ)言學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)者,隱含明確的給予和被給予的授受關(guān)系,語(yǔ)言學(xué)知識(shí)是教材作者讓渡給語(yǔ)言學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)者的信息內(nèi)容。這種給予與被給予、讓渡與被讓渡的關(guān)系在詞典中較少出現(xiàn),因?yàn)樵~典的查閱者與詞典作者都是語(yǔ)言學(xué)領(lǐng)域知識(shí)水平較高的學(xué)界同行,突出的是對(duì)信息本身的呈現(xiàn),較少使用及物性系統(tǒng)中的關(guān)系過(guò)程,可能更多地使用物質(zhì)過(guò)程(material process)等句型,體現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言形式、概念內(nèi)容、各種理論和研究方法之間的相互作用,物質(zhì)過(guò)程所涉及的動(dòng)詞形式是無(wú)限多樣的,所以在詞頻統(tǒng)計(jì)時(shí)很難像關(guān)系過(guò)程那樣因?yàn)樵~頻高而被提取。
5.3 “對(duì)比與比較”的比較
表示“對(duì)比與比較”的詞組,“在詞典中更多”的詞組主要總結(jié)相同點(diǎn)(如have the same,with the same,and the same),在5個(gè)中占了3個(gè)?!霸诮滩闹懈唷钡脑~組主要表示差異(如different...)或?qū)Ρ龋ㄈ鐃he other...或much more...),13個(gè)中占了9個(gè),詳見(jiàn)附錄。
“求同”(comparison)詞組的功能旨在拓寬知識(shí)內(nèi)容的視閾,是一種基于知識(shí)關(guān)聯(lián)度的聯(lián)想,詞典更多地借助這種功能來(lái)呈現(xiàn)知識(shí)。與此不同,“求異”(contrast)是比“求同”更深入的思維過(guò)程,因?yàn)榍笸梢詰{借感官(如視覺(jué))完成,而求異必須有更深層的歸納和推理,是作者代替讀者完成的一種分析性工作。教材中更多地使用求異的詞組,是因?yàn)榻滩牡淖x者是語(yǔ)言學(xué)的初學(xué)者,思辨能力較弱,需要教材作者代替讀者完成辨析的過(guò)程;相反,詞典的查閱者與作者都是較高水平的學(xué)術(shù)同行,詞典作者只需通過(guò)聯(lián)想(即求同)盡可能地拓寬知識(shí)面,呈現(xiàn)給讀者更多的學(xué)術(shù)資源,而不必給查閱者先入為主的差異總結(jié),況且差異的歸納取決于觀察和分析的方法和視角。
5.4 “能力與可能性”的比較
表示“能力與可能性”的詞組,“在詞典中更多”的有6個(gè),“在教材中更多”的有5個(gè)。對(duì)比發(fā)現(xiàn),詞典更多地使用被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu),在6個(gè)詞組中有5個(gè)是被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu),即can be used,can be used to,can be found in,carried out by,can be found,說(shuō)明詞典更多地采用他者的視角和客觀的判斷,不直接對(duì)能力與可能性進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià)。教材更多的使用主動(dòng)形式,5個(gè)詞組中有4個(gè)是主動(dòng)形式,即to use the, it is possible to, it is possible, are able to,體現(xiàn)作者與讀者之間信息交流的現(xiàn)場(chǎng)感和親昵性特征,體現(xiàn)類似教師與學(xué)生面對(duì)面授課的人際交流模式。
5.5 “原因與結(jié)果”的比較
“原因與結(jié)果”詞組,“在詞典中更多”的詞組只有2個(gè),即due to the和the result of,“在教材中更多”的詞組有9個(gè),如in order to,as a result, whether or not, the effect of, the reason for, because it is, so that the, due to the fact that, whether or not the等。原因是,教材比詞典更多地使用因果推理,而詞典更多地偏重于事實(shí)和理論的客觀呈現(xiàn),我們?cè)?.3中的解釋同樣適用于這里:教材讀者是初學(xué)者,需要更多的解釋和推理,而詞典的檢索者是較高水平的學(xué)者,詞典作者不必把較深層的因果關(guān)系挑明,可以由讀者自己去領(lǐng)悟和發(fā)揮。
從上面5種類型的對(duì)比可以看出,詞典和教材在選用學(xué)術(shù)詞組時(shí),前者專注于呈現(xiàn)信息本身,較少給予讀者(查閱者)先入為主的引導(dǎo)、解釋和因果推理,信息呈現(xiàn)以客觀的方式進(jìn)行,后者面對(duì)的讀者是語(yǔ)言學(xué)的初學(xué)者,需要更多的解釋和帶有傾向性的主觀灌輸和邏輯引導(dǎo),這些都是由詞典和教材的功能定位和編讀雙方的人際關(guān)系所決定的。
6 結(jié)束語(yǔ)
語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組研究,可以從一種權(quán)威的通用型學(xué)術(shù)詞組列表出發(fā),通過(guò)語(yǔ)料比較,排除不屬于語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組,建立包括249個(gè)學(xué)術(shù)詞組的列表。語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組列表與AFL的不同之處,是由于后者包括太多的自然科學(xué)語(yǔ)料、偏重于FTW、在同義詞組選擇上有不同的偏好等造成的。詞典與教材的比較表明,詞典中常用的學(xué)術(shù)詞組更多地指向背景的抽象框架屬性,偏重于時(shí)空指示語(yǔ),多用同位結(jié)構(gòu),突出對(duì)信息本身的呈現(xiàn)而不是體現(xiàn)師生之間的授受關(guān)系和讓渡關(guān)系,盡可能地通過(guò)聯(lián)想(即求同)拓寬知識(shí)面,呈現(xiàn)給讀者更多的學(xué)術(shù)資源而不是總結(jié)差異,更多地使用被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu),不挑明較深層的因果關(guān)系而是由讀者自己去領(lǐng)悟和發(fā)現(xiàn)。
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附錄:語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組(共249個(gè))
(語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域的學(xué)術(shù)詞組共分為18類,每一類分為A、B、C 3部分,分別代表“在詞典中更多”“在教材中更多”和“不相上下”。另外,每一類的D部分是AFL所包含但是語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)域所沒(méi)有的,總數(shù)為158個(gè)。所以,4部分的總和是AFL核心和書(shū)面學(xué)術(shù)詞組的總數(shù)407個(gè)。)
A1無(wú)形框架特征(82個(gè))A.30個(gè):on the basis of, in the case of, based on the, on the basis, is based on, the development of, the basis of, based on a, in which the, the concept of, such a way, the ability to, in the context, the form of, the distribution of, view of the, a form of, the order of, function of the, the structure of, the work of, form of the, on the basis of the, is based on the, in the context of, with regard to, in the form of, depends on the, depending on the, are based on; B.27個(gè):in terms of, the fact that, with respect to, in this case, in the sense that, the case of, ways in which, the fact that the, the role of, terms of the, in this way, the nature of, the idea that, nature of the, the notion of, fact that the, the meaning of, the issue of, the problem of, the study of, the definition of, of the fact, such a way that, with respect to the, by virtue of, the nature of the, in terms of a;C.25個(gè):point of view, the extent to which, in such a way, the use of, in terms of the, the way in which, the presence of, extent to which, in relation to, in the case, way in which, a function of, the existence of, the context of, in the sense, the process of, the question of, in such a, the way in, in accordance with, in this case the, the presence of a, to the fact that, in the course of, depend on the;D.20個(gè):from the point of view, the point of view of, point of view of, as a function of, the point of view, from the point of, as a function, in response to, focus on the, from the point, the way that, of view of, was based on, degree to which, an attempt to, on the part of, in the absence of, in such a way that, insight into the, in accordance with the.
A2有形框架特征(11個(gè))A.4個(gè): the level of, the frequency of, value of the, the area of; B.3個(gè):part of the, parts of the, the value of;C.4個(gè):as part of, the sum of, part of a, the change in.D.11個(gè):as part of the, high levels of, over a period, an increase in the, over a period of, the size of the, the rate of, size of the, the part of the, the size of, the amount of.
A3數(shù)量確認(rèn)(17個(gè))A.2個(gè):the number of, two types of;B.5個(gè):a list of, a set of, each of the, the first is, there are no, a series of, large number of, and the second;C.10個(gè):a number of, there are three, of the two, of the second, a large number of, a large number, in most cases.D.20個(gè):both of these,of these two,each of these,a wide range of, there are a number of, a wide range, there are a number, wide range of, little or no, a high degree, there are several, are a number of, to ensure that, in some cases, total number of, a small number, in both cases, small number of, in a number of, the total number.
A4認(rèn)定與焦點(diǎn)(48個(gè))A.4個(gè):such as the, is the case, is for the, with respect to, on the basis;B.39個(gè):in terms of, there is a, this is a, there is no, is that the, there is an, is not a, that this is, this is an, which is not, that we are, is to be, is that it, means that the, example of a, is that there, is not the, that is the, the example of, that in a, it is not, it can be, that there is a, that there is, referred to as, it does not, that there are, as an example, this is not, has also been, does not have, this means that, this does not, that there is no, it has been, they do not, there has been, which can be, is that it is;C.5個(gè):a variety of, different types of, an example of, this type of, which is the.D.8個(gè):if this is, here is that, this would be, as can be seen, his or her, they did not, that it is not, none of these.
A5對(duì)比與比較(23個(gè))A.6個(gè):as opposed to, the relationship between, have the same, with the same, and the same, may not be;B.13個(gè):the difference between, exactly the same, difference between the, between the two, is much more, the same as, different from the, on the other, same way as, on the other hand, the same way as, the other hand, the difference between the;C.4個(gè):the same time, in the same, related to the, of the same.D.7個(gè):more likely to, associated with the, on the other hand the, the other hand the, similar to those, is more likely, be related to the.
A6指示與方位(3個(gè)) A.2個(gè):the real world, a and b; B.1個(gè):of the system; C.0個(gè);D.4個(gè):the united kingdom, at this stage, at the time of, b and c.
A7模糊標(biāo)記(1個(gè)) A.0個(gè); B.1個(gè):and so on;C.0個(gè); D.0個(gè).
B1模糊限制(5個(gè))A.1個(gè):at least in;B.3個(gè): it may be, may not be, there may be;C.1個(gè):as a whole.D.20個(gè):likely to be, we can see,to some extent,are likely to,is likely to be,it is likely that,does not appear,be regarded as,we assume that,less likely to,appears to be,be explained by,it appears that,can be considered,appear to be,is likely to,have shown that,been shown to,be argued that,be considered as.
B2認(rèn)知態(tài)度(9個(gè))A.1個(gè):according to the; B.3個(gè):to show that, assume that the, we have seen;C.5個(gè):be the case, be seen as, assumed to be, is determined by, if they are.D.0個(gè).
B3 義務(wù)與指令(3個(gè)) A.0個(gè):B.3個(gè):should not be, need not be, be noted that; C.0個(gè);D.7個(gè):it should be noted, take into account the, take into account, should be noted, to ensure that the, needs to be, should also be.
B4 能力與可能性(12個(gè))A.6個(gè):can be used, can be used to, can be found in, carried out by, can be found, can also be; B.5個(gè):to use the, it is possible to, it is possible, are able to, be used to;C.1個(gè):has been used;D.18個(gè):it is not possible to, it is not possible, been carried out, was carried out, to carry out, it is possible that, be carried out, is not possible to, be used as a, allows us to, carried out in, can easily be, most likely to, can be achieved, can be expressed, their ability to, could be used, be achieved by.
B5評(píng)估(6個(gè)) A.2個(gè):the most important, important role in; B.3個(gè):the importance of, it is clear, it is difficult; C.1個(gè):it is impossible;D.12個(gè):it is interesting, the validity of the, it is necessary, it is worth, it is important, it is clear that, it is interesting to, it is impossible to, it is obvious that, it is important to, it is necessary to, is consistent with.
B6意圖或意志(2個(gè))A.0個(gè); B.2個(gè):we do not, to do so;C.0個(gè); D.0個(gè).
C1元話語(yǔ)與文本指稱(1個(gè))A.0個(gè); B.1個(gè):as shown in;C.0個(gè);D.11個(gè):at the outset, shown in table, in this paper, in the present study, shown in figure, in this paper we, in the next section, the next section, this paper we, in this article, in table 1.
C2認(rèn)知態(tài)度(2個(gè)) A.1個(gè):for example in; B.1個(gè):what are the;C.0個(gè); D.3個(gè):for example if, for example the, see for example.
C3非因果性(4個(gè)) A.2個(gè):such as those, are as follows;B.2個(gè):but this is, out that the;C.0個(gè);D.2個(gè):factors such as, in more detail.
C4原因與結(jié)果(12個(gè))A.2個(gè)::due to the, the result of; B.9個(gè):in order to, as a result, whether or not, the effect of, the reason for, because it is, so that the, due to the fact that, whether or not the;C.1個(gè):for this reason;D.13個(gè):as a result of,a result of,the effects of,due to the fact,give rise to,as a result of the,for the purposes of,to determine whether,the purpose of this,it follows that,as a consequence,for this purpose,is affected by.
C5話語(yǔ)標(biāo)記語(yǔ)(7個(gè)) A.2個(gè):as well as, and in the;B.2個(gè):in other words, even though the; C.1個(gè):at the same time, at the same, in conjunction with;D.2個(gè):in other words the, other words the.
定稿日期:2023-12-10【責(zé)任編輯 謝 群】