杰西卡·李特曼 著 倪朱亮 譯
內容提要:版權學者們認為我們過去為之抗爭的所謂版權之戰(zhàn)名義上是作者、創(chuàng)作者利益與讀者、社會公眾之間的利益沖突導致的,但是,現(xiàn)在我們愈發(fā)清楚這場戰(zhàn)爭根本不是這么一回事。相反,真正的沖突出現(xiàn)在二十世紀具有市場支配地位的出版商、唱片公司、電影公司以及其他中間商與作為二十一世紀版權市場強有力的參與者的數(shù)字服務商、平臺之間。本文認為,至少有部分人主張二十世紀出版者與二十一世紀數(shù)字平臺之間的沖突應當留待雙方律師解決,而我們應當關注那些并未引起我們注意的問題。當版權學者致力于討論究竟是作者利益還是讀者利益至上時,很顯然我們已經錯過了研究這場版權戰(zhàn)爭中那些讓人難以理解的問題的最佳時機。比如,所有論述都認為作者在版權體系中具有核心地位,但是,事實上版權法幾乎沒有賦予作者權力,也沒有給予他們足夠的金錢回報。相反,中間商擁有版權,并構建許可體系,以實現(xiàn)自身收益最大化,同時縮減支付給作者的報酬。對于這一點,版權學者的認識一貫十分膚淺。該原因在于法律人士理所當然地認為版權就是財產,財產權通過自由轉讓可以使受讓人取得原權利人的地位。通過比較創(chuàng)設法定版權并將權利集中到出版商、印刷商手里的1710年英國安娜法令與對美國剝奪印第安人土地起著關鍵作用的1887年道斯法案,本文從中抽離出相一個相同的寓意,即若將某些事物歸為可以自由轉讓的財產權的話,其結果往往會反映或者惡化財富與議價能力之間的懸殊差異,而有關財產權的法律信條極易讓我們忽略這個結果。
如果你們有研讀版權法的話,自然了解在過去25年里美國版權法學界儼然分為對立的兩派。一部分人認為讀者和其他使用者的利益被低估了;另一部分人認為我們更應加大對作者的保護力度。但是,在這場爭議過程中,當我們以不雅名字稱呼反對方的時候,①See,e.g.,Hugh Hansen,David O.Carson,Eben Moglen,Wendy Seltzer &Charles Sims,“Mickey Mice? Potential Ramifications of Eldred v.Ashcroft”(2003)13 Fordham Intellectual Property Media &Entertainment Law Journal 771,787 (“the anti-copyright professors”);Henry Horbaczewski,“No Silver Lining for the Emperor,s New Clothes:Golan and the Traditional Contours of Copyright”(2012)59 Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA 865,865 (2012)(“scholars that viewed the copyright law as a constitutional abomination”);I.Fred Koenigsberg,“TheFifth Annual Christopher Meyer Memorial Lecture:Humpty Dumpty in Copyright Land”(2004)51 Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA 677,680 (“enemies of copyright”);Mark A.Lemley,Faith-Based Intellectual Property (2015)62 UCLA Law Review 1328,1343 (“the IP faithful”);Reilly,“Copyright and a Synergistic Society”p.625 (“anti-author proponents”);ibid.at p.626 (“if one reads professorial accounts such as these closely,one can also detect the perfidious underlying presence of ‘copyright envy’”);Pam Samuelson,The Copyright Grab,WIRED,1 Jan.1996,at https://www.wired.com/1996/01/white-paper/ (“copyright maximalists”);Paul Schwartz &William Michael Treanor,“Essay,Eldred and Lochner:Copyright Term Extension and Intellectual Property as Constitutional Property”(2003)112 Yale Law Journal 2331,2331 (“the IP Restrictors”).Cf.Kembrew McLeod,Freedom of Expression (New York 2005),65 (referring to copyright bullies as“overzealous copyright bozos”).這場爭議變得十分令人難堪。②See,e.g.,Tracy Reilly,“Copyright and a Synergistic Society”(2017)18 Minnesota Journal of Law,Science &Technology 575,591-609 (關于版權限制并將作者觀點視為“版權嫉妒”的學術爭論分析)。版權人的維護者將那些為讀者、使用者發(fā)聲的學者視為谷歌公司雇來撰文以促進其商業(yè)利益的槍手。③See Brody Mullins &Jack Nickas,“Inside Google,s Academic Inf ul ence Campaign”Wall Street Journal,14 July 2017,at https://www.wsj.com/articles/paying-professors-inside-googles-academic-inf ul ence-campaign-1499 785286;Adam Rogers,“Google,s Academic Inf ul ence Campaign:It's Complicated”WIRED,14 July 2017 at https://www.wired.com/story/googles-academic-inf ul ence-campaign-its-complicated/.也有部分人一旦覺得學者的文章站在對立面就不再讀下去。④See Jessica Litman,“War &Peace:The 34th Annual Donald C Brace Lecture”(2006)53 Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA 1;Jessica Litman,“The Politics of Intellectual Property”(2009)27 Cardozo Arts &Entertainment Law Journal 313.
我相信,或者說至少我希望的是,只要我們能夠原諒那些令人討厭的骯臟話,那么這些難堪就會快要結束或者應當能盡快結束。當那些具體的改革提案從這些“對戰(zhàn)”中得以呈現(xiàn)時,很顯然在作者與讀者之間的沖突根本不是這么一回事了。相反,真正持續(xù)出現(xiàn)乃是中間商之間的殊死搏斗。唱片公司針對“點對點”文件分享應用軟件的個人用戶⑤See,e.g.,Capitol Records v Thomas-Rasset,692 F.3d 899 (8th Cir.2012);Sony BMG Music Entertainment v.Tenenbaum,660 F.3d 487 (1st Cir.2011).提起的訴訟,獲得了廣泛報道。但是最后結果證明,這些訴訟只是唱片公司力爭使互聯(lián)網(wǎng)服務商為其用戶行為承擔責任之戰(zhàn)中的虛晃一槍。⑥E.g.,BMG Rights Management v.Cox Communications,881 F.3d 293 (4th Cir.2018);EMI Christian Music v.MP3Tunes,844 F.3d 79 (2d Cir.2016).See Cory Doctorow,Information Doesn 't Want to Be Free:Laws for the Internet Age (San Francisco 2014)80-89.針對網(wǎng)上用戶隱私⑦See,e.g.,Privacy and Piracy:The Paradox of Illegal File Sharing on Peer-to-Peer Networks and the Impact of Technology on the Entertainment Industry,Hearing Before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Senate Committee on Government Affairs,108th Congress (30 September 2003)19-20 (testimony of L.L.Cool,recording artist);Promoting Investment and Protecting Commerce Online:Legitimate Sites vs.Para-sites,Hearing Before the Subcommittee On Intellectual Property of the House Judiciary Committee,112th Congress (14 March 2011)61-62 (testimony of Frederick Huntsberry,Paramount Pictures).的抗辯很大程度上是大多數(shù)版權人努力縮小網(wǎng)絡服務適用避風港規(guī)則的序幕。⑧See,e.g.,United States Copyright Office:Section 512 Public Roundtable,2 May 2016,at https://www.copyright.gov/policy/section512/public-roundtable/transcript_05-02-2016.pdf.舊式的中間商(如出版商、唱片公司與電影公司)正與新潮的中間商(如網(wǎng)絡在線服務提供商、平臺和電子傳遞商)對抗,目的就是爭奪最大的市場份額。⑨See,e.g.,Robert Levine,Free Ride:How the Internet is Destroying the Culture Business and How the Culture Business Can Fight Back(London 2011);Jonathan Taplin,Move Fast and Break Things:How Facebook,Google,and Amazon Cornered Culture and Undermined Democracy(New York 2017);Guy Pessach,“Deconstructing Disintermediation:A Skeptical Copyright Perspective”(2013)31 Cardozo Arts &Entertainment Law Journal 833;Mary Rasenberger &Christine Pepe,“Copyright Enforcement and Online File Hosting Services:Have Courts Struck the Proper Balance”(2012)59 Journal of the Copyright Soc' y U.S.A.627.Compare Stephen E Siwek,Copyright Industries in the U.S.Economy:2016 Report(2016),at http://www.iipawebsite.com/pdf/2016CpyrtRptFull.PDF,with Computer and Communications Industry Association,Fair Use Industries in the U.S.Economy:Economic Contributions of Industries Relying on Fair Use (2017),at http://www.ccianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Fair-Use-in-the-U.S.-Economy-2017.pdf;US Copyright Office,Section 512 Study,https://www.copyright.gov/policy/section512/ (2017)(public comments and transcripts of public roundtables).
版權學者在沒有我們幫助的情況下,由他們自己解決該爭議。如果上述爭議的核心問題是關于版權法更應該偏向出版商還是平臺,或者反之亦然;而且該問題的答案也不太可能會對版權系統(tǒng)產生重大影響。在這場爭議中,雙方都沒有太多道德方面的主張。⑩See Jane C.Ginsburg,“The Place of the Author in Copyright”in Ruth L.Okediji (ed.),Copyright Law in an Age of Exceptions and Limitations (New York 2017),60,66-68.雙方都是實力雄厚且可以雇傭許多律師來保護自己,以至于他們根本無需版權法學者們的支持。在這場爭議中,版權法體系需要解決的反而是其他問題,而不是來自理論或政策層面的壓力。如果在傳統(tǒng)中間商與新潮中間商之間利益分配不會過多影響版權法所調整的作者與讀者之間的利益平衡而做的決定,那么許多學者對此將會失去研究興趣。因此,在我們各自收回此前的詆毀后,我希望版權學者們能夠離開這個問題去思考更加有意思的問題上。
本文試圖做兩件事。第一,將聚焦于一個在之前爭議中本來應具有中心地位卻不知何故未具有中心地位的重要問題上,即所有論述都認為作者在版權法體系中處于中心地位,但是,事實上版權法幾乎沒有賦予作者權力,也沒有給予他們足夠的金錢回報。如果一個有意為作者利益設計的法律體系反而系統(tǒng)性地不公正地對待作者,那么我們就得思考為什么會出現(xiàn)這樣的問題,我們又應當如何回應?盡管版權學者時常提及該問題?See,e.g.,William Patry,Moral Panics and the Copyright Wars(Oxford 2009),117-19;Daniel Gervais,“User-Generated Content and Music File-Sharing:A Look at Some of the More Interesting Aspects of Bill C-32”in Michael Geist (ed.),From“Radical Extremism”to“Balanced Copyright”:Canadian Copyright And The Digital Agenda (Toronto 2010),447,450;Rebecca Giblin,“Reimagining Copyright’s Duration”in Rebecca Giblin &Kimberly Weatherall (eds.),What If We Could Reimagine Copyright? (2017),177,193-96;Ginsburg,supra note ;P.Bernt Hugenholtz,The Great Copyright Robbery:Rights Allocation in a Digital Environment (2000),at https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/thegreatcopyrightrobbery.pdf;Molly Van Houweling,“Authors vs Owners”(2016)54 Houston Law Review 371;Molly Van Houweling,“Distributive Values in Copyright”(2004)83 Tex.Law Review 1535.,但也僅給予一點關注。其次,本文試圖回答為何我們不關心現(xiàn)實世界里作者享有極其微小的版權利益這個問題。畢竟該問題不管是理論上還是實踐中都非常重要,那么為何我們不為此多寫點呢?本文認為該答案至少部分源自我們像法律人?譯者注:按照元照法律詞典中l(wèi)awyer的釋義,是指對從事法律職業(yè)者或者擁有法學知識者的總稱。因此,本文將其翻譯成“法律人”,視為一個泛稱。具體含義是,法律人從學習法律伊始就被灌輸財產權可以自由轉讓的法律理念,并且在他們的教育中認為版權屬于財產,自然需要遵循財產權的流轉規(guī)則。因此,版權轉讓意味著財產權人地位的承接。這是法律人“約定俗成”的概念。那樣思考財產權的規(guī)則。
我要感謝我的先驅者們。盡管二十一世紀的版權法是一個具有一系列且有時目的不統(tǒng)一的復雜系統(tǒng),但是我相信在這些目的中最為重要的包括:首先,版權法應當鼓勵作者創(chuàng)作并廣泛傳播作品;其次,版權法應當提供作者從作品中獲得收益的機會;再次,版權法應當鼓勵讀者、聽眾、觀眾以及其他使用者從作品中獲得接觸、享受與認知。?Jessica Litman,“Real Copyright Reform”(2010)96 Iowa Law Rev.1.See also,e.g.,Doctorow,Information Doesn't Want to be Free,pp.153-54.盡管還有其他目的,但那些都是附屬性的。援用亞馬遜公司副總裁魯斯·格蘭迪內蒂(Russ Grandinetti)的話,整個版權法體系中只需要作者與讀者即可。?See David Streatfield,“Amazon Signs Up Authors,Writing Publishers Out of Deal”New York Times,17 Oct.2011 at p.A1(quoting Grandinetti as having said,“The only really necessary people in the publishing process now are the writer and reader”).
當然,版權系統(tǒng)需要中間商將作品傳播給讀者,并且也需要將因作品消費所取得的收入分配給作者。但是對于法律是否應當傾向于相互競爭中的某一家中間商,我們也可以在所不問。而其中最重要的考量因素就是他們如何完成向讀者傳播作品并將收益返給作者的任務。?許多中介機構,無論是圖書出版商、在線市場還是社交媒體平臺,都合理地看待他們在市場分析、戰(zhàn)略和設計方面的努力,以獲得巨大的創(chuàng)造力。當然,可比較的創(chuàng)造力通常需要的銷售產品不是作者的作品,如手推車或辣醬。中間人對版權生態(tài)系統(tǒng)作出創(chuàng)造性和有價值的貢獻這一事實,并沒有使其成為不可或缺的受益者。
那么,我們不妨先了解一下他們是如何完成這項任務的。當今全球版權體系是如何為作者和讀者服務的呢?在學術生涯中,我花了大量精力去討論讀者以及其他消費者的利益極少得到關注這一問題。?See,e.g.,Jessica Litman,“Copyright Noncompliance (Or Why we Can't‘Just Say Yes'to Licensing)”(1997)29 N.Y.U.Journal of International Law &Policy 237;Jessica Litman,“The Exclusive Right to Read”(1994)13 Cardozo Arts &Entertainment Law Journal 29;Jessica Litman,“Lawful Personal Use”(2007)85 Texas Law Review 1871.版權法中有關讀者的問題并沒有消失。其一,至少在美國,讀者獲得作品是以放棄他們一大堆的個人隱私為代價。?See,e.g.,John M.Newman,“The Myth of Free”(2018)86 G.W.Law Rev.513,551-55;Geoffrey A.Fowler,“Your Data is WayMore Exposed than You Think”,Wall Street Journal,24 May 2017,at https://www.wsj.com/articles/your-data-is-way-more-exposed-than-yourealize-1495657390;SamSchechner &Nick Kostove,Google and Facebook Likely to Benefit from Europe,s Privacy Crackdown,Wall Street Journal,23 April 2017,at https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-europes-new-privacy-rules-favor-google-and-facebook-1524536324.盡管美國政策制定者已經開始意識到這種方式的風險,但現(xiàn)在去改變這些政策已為時已晚。其二,至少到目前為止,許多版權人通過強勢的終端用戶許可協(xié)議約束消費者,從而成功剝奪了版權法賦予使用者的權利。?See Aaron Perzanowski &Jason Schultz,The End of Ownership (Cambridge,MA 2016),15-101;Margaret Jane Radin,Boilerplate (Princeton 2013),33-51,168-76;see,e.g.,Lewis Hyde,Common As Air:Revolution,Art,and Ownership (New York 2010),66-68.本文所顧慮的乃是從長遠來看,這種做法會侵蝕版權體系。盡管版權法中有關讀者的問題依舊存在,但是在某種程度上,版權法的宗旨之一還是以不同方式、不同價格向讀者提供接觸作品的機會。就這而言,當前版權體系還是極為成功的。
另一方面,作者的處境更加令人沮喪。實際上,版權體系并沒有很好地提供作者向公眾傳播作品或者從中收益的可供選擇的渠道。?See,e.g.,Doctorow,note Information Doesn,t Want to be Free,pp.xxii-xxv.假如作者的目標是將他們的作品傳播給最好的讀者并且從中獲利,那么他們的選擇十分有限。即使版權人通過最合適的渠道將作品傳播給讀者,但他仍然需要接受這樣的事實,即那些控制著傳播渠道的中間商也可能控制了作品傳播并且截留了大部分收益。?See Litman,“Real Copyright Reform”,pp.8-12.
從十八世紀到 二十世紀,中間商控制大部分收益的做法才看似合理。因為那時紙質價格昂貴,?See Michael A.Carroll,“Whose Music is it Anyway? How We Came to View Musical Expression as a Form of Property”(2004)72 University of Cincinnati Law Review 1405,1471.大眾傳播需要紙并伴隨著印刷出版、書店、倉儲、卡車、電影攝像機與電影院、廣播站與通信衛(wèi)星等一系列環(huán)節(jié),這些都需要投入大量的資本。?See,e.g.,Jessica Litman,“Sharing and Stealing”(2004)26 Hastings Communication &Entertainment Law Journal 1,2.在此背景下,中間商希望從作品所產生的收益中截取一部分是合理的,而其中大部分的收益被用于支付復制與分銷等成本。
到了二十一世紀,上述這種解釋就很難成立了。至少許多當下流行的復制品和分銷的替代方式是價格低廉的。?See,e.g.,Hyde,common as Air,pp.64-65;Mark A.Lemley,“IP in a World Without Scarcity”(2015)90 NYU Law Review 460,482-94.數(shù)字復制、數(shù)字下載與在線流媒體十分廉價,任何人都有能力支付。同時,該實際情形也被認為是導致消費者盜版增加的主要原因。?See,e.g.,Orin Kerr,“A Lukewarm Defense of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act”in Adam Thierer &Clyde Wayne Crews (eds.),CopyFights:The Future of Intellectual Property in the Information Age (Washington 2002),163,165-67;Fred Von Lohmann,“Measuring the Digital Millennium Copyright Act Against the Darknet:Implications for the Regulation of Technological Protection Measures”(2004)24 Loyola Los Angeles Entertainment Law Review 635,638-43.據(jù)說這個時候傳播與消費作品所產生的收益處于歷史最高水平。?See,e.g.,Joshua P.Friedlander,RIAA Year-End Music Industry Revenue Report,22 March 2018,at http://www.riaa.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/RIAA-Year-End-2017-News-and-Notes.pdf;Stephen E.Siwek,Copyright Industries in the US Economy:The 2016 Report (Dec.2016),at https://iipa.org/files/uploads/2018/01/2016CpyrtRptFull-1.pdf;Andrew Szamosszegi and Mary Ann McCleary,Fair Use in the US Economy(2017),at https://www.ccianet.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Fair-Use-in-the-U.S.-Economy-2017.pdf.Reports focusing on particular income streams earned by some legacy intermediaries don,t count all of the revenue that new-fangled intermediaries are collecting as a result of the online dissemination of works of authorship.See,e.g.,Statista,Dossier:Film Industry in the U.S.(2018),at https://www.statista.com/study/11472/filmindustry-in-the-united-states-statista-dossier/.That money is of course part of the total that should be available for author compensation.Moreover,those industry sector-specific reports indicate that legacy intermediaries are earning impressive profits,despite the large amounts of money paid to platforms and other new-fangled intermediaries.See,e.g.,ibid.;Friedlander,“RIAA Year-End Music Industry Revenue Report”,p.1.然而,作者們卻指出他們現(xiàn)在的收益反而比過去少很多。?See,e.g.,Katherine Cowdray,“ALCS Survey Finds 15% Drop in Average Author Earnings Since 2013”The Bookseller,27 June 2018,at https://www.thebookseller.com/news/alcs-reveals-average-author-earnings-even-lower-four-years-ago- 818891;David Dupont,“Composer Maria Schneider Warns Students about the Future of the Music Industry”Bowling Green Independent News,31 March 2018,at http://bgindependentmedia.org/composer-maria-schneider-warns-students-about-the-future-of-the-music-industry/;Malcolm Harris,“How Much is a Word Worth?”Medium,16 April 2018 at https://medium.com/s/story/how-much-is-a-word-worth-7fcd131a341c;Douglas Preston,“Why is it So Goddamned Hard to Make a Living as a Writer Today?”(Summer 2017)Authors Guild Bulletin 63.
有觀點認為,上述問題是由版權密集產業(yè)的“贏者通吃”結構所致。例如,J.K.羅琳27See James B.Stewart,“In the Chamber of Secrets:J.K.Rowling's Net Worth”New York Times,24 November 2016,at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/24/business/in-the-chamber-of-secrets-jk-rowlings-net-worth.html.、達明安·赫斯特28See Eileen Kinsella,“Damien Hirst and Anish Kapoor Land on UK Rich List(Again)”Artnet News,8 May 2017,at https://news.artnet.com/art-world/artists-on-sunday-times-rich-list-952055.、碧昂斯·諾里斯29See Zack O,Malley Greenburg,“The World,s Highest Paid Women in Music 2017”Forbes,20 November 2017,at https://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2017/11/20/the-worlds-highest-paid-women-in-music-2017/.、喬治·盧卡斯30See Zack O,Malley Greenburg,“America,s Wealthiest Celebrities:The Top 10 by Net Worth”,Forbes,18 December 2017,at https://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2017/12/18/americas-wealthiest-celebrities-2017-the-top-ten-by-networth/.和林·曼努爾·米蘭達31See Michael Paulson &David Gelles,“Hamilton,Inc.:The Path to a Billion-Dollar Broadway Show”8 June 2016,at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/12/theater/hamilton-inc-the-path-to-a-billion-dollar-show.html.通過版權作品賺得“盆滿缽滿”。而大部分作者通常都要面臨著在貧困邊緣生活或者白天再做一份工來養(yǎng)活家庭的現(xiàn)實困境。32See,e.g.,Todd London &Ben Pesner,Outrageous Fortune:The Life and Times of the New American Play(New York 2009),50-96;Rachel Deahl,“New Guild Survey Reveals Majority of Authors Earn Below Poverty Line”Publishers Weekly,Sept.11,2015,at https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/68008-new-guild-survey-reveals-majority-of-authors-earn-below-povertyline.html ;Johanna Gibson,Phillip Johnson,&Gaetano Dimita,The Business of Being an Author:A Survey of Authors’ Earnings and Contracts(April 2015),at https://orca.cf.ac.uk/72431/1/Final%20Report%20-%20For%20Web%20Publication.pdf;Martin Kretschmer,“Does CopyrightLaw Matter? An Empirical Analysis of Creators Earnings”(21 May 2012),available at SSRN:https://ssrn.com/abstract=2063735 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/4899875.pdf.盡管反差明顯,但這并不新鮮。33See,e.g.,Herman Finklestein,“The Copyright Law:A Reappraisal”(1956)104 U.Penn.Law Review 1025,1051;Maureen O’Rourke,“Bargaining in the Shadow of Copyright Law After Tasini”(2003)53 Case Western Reserve Law Review 605,613-14.作者收益比從前還少,還有其他因素導致的。
這是一個多方原因導致的復雜問題,其中一個原因就是許多中間商想方設法既要賺得更多,又要向作者支出更少。本文已經提到這場戰(zhàn)爭發(fā)生在老式中間商與新潮中間商之間,在面對網(wǎng)絡服務提供者與平臺收刮了大部分版權作品收益時,老式中間商被激怒了。他們自創(chuàng)了一個口號叫“價值缺口”(value gap)來表達新式中間商擁有太強的談判權力并且會用該權力拿下一個更低價格的訴求。34See Glenn Peoples,“War of Words:Labels and Trade Groups Target YouTube,s ‘Value Gap,”Billboard,13 April 2016,at https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7333110/war-of-words-labels-trade-groups-youtube-value-gap;see,e.g.,Joint Comments of the American Association of Independent Music et.al.,In re:Section 512 Study,31 March 2016,at https://www.riaa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Music-Community-Submission-in-re-DMCA-512-FINAL-7559445.pdf;International Federation of the Phonographic Industry,Europe’s Creators,Cultural and Creative Industries’ Call to the European Council:Secure the Aims of the Proposed Copyright Directive in the DSM (12 April 2018),at http://www.ifpi.org/downloads/EU_Creators_Cultural_and_Creative_Industries_Call_to_European_Co uncil.pdf.出版社、唱片公司與電影制片廠認為法律制定者應當改變法律向他們傾斜,如此一來他們可以要到更高的價格。35See,e.g.,IFPI,Rewarding Creativity:Fixing the Value Gap,http://www.ifpi.org/value_gap.php (visited April 19,2018).與此同時,他們通過構建許可交易將支付給作者的版稅降至最低,從而彌補他們覺得少得可憐的許可費用。36See,e.g.,Kristiella Garcia,“Private Copyright Reform”(2013)20 Mich.Telecom.7 Technology Law Review 1,22-23,27-29.舉個例子,如果Spotify或者YouTube網(wǎng)站通過向音樂出版商和唱片公司提供公司股權,或者通過向版權所有人一攬子預付年度許可費用的方式為音樂的使用支付對價,則這些許可費用無需轉給作曲家或音樂家。37See,e.g.,19 Recordings v.Sony Music Entertainment,No.14-CV-1056 (SDNY filed 24 June 2015);Zack O,Malley Greenburg,“Revenge of The Record Labels:How the Majors Renewed Their Grip on Music”,Forbes,15 April 2015,at https://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2015/04/15/revenge-of-the-record-labels-how-the-majors-renewed-their-grip-on-music.In 2016,major record labels in the United States announced that musicians would eventually be paid a share of the prof its that the labels earned from selling their equity stakes in Spotify,but have been slow to disclose specifics.Zack O’Malley Greenburg,“Spotify Goes Public at $30 Billion.When will Artists See Any of That?”Forbes,3 April 2018,at https://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2018/04/03/spotify-ipo-goes-public-at-30-billion-when-will-artists-seeany-of-that.Sony Music Entertainment sold half of its equity stake on Spotify in April of 2018,earning an estimated $761 million.In June of 2018,the company promised that it would pass along a portion of the proceeds from the sale to artists and independent labels beginning in August.See Melinda Newman,“Sony Music Entertainment to Start Paying Indie Artists and Labels Spotify Sale Proceeds as Early as August”Billboard,14 June 2018,at https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8461117/sony-music-canada-spotify-pay-indie-artists-labels.Warner Music sold 75% of its stake in Spotify in May of 2018,but,as of this writing,has not revealed its plans for sharing the money with creators.
類似的是,出版商通過重新解釋既有合同條款與重新起草合同以降低作品數(shù)字傳播的許可費率。在二十世紀圖書、音樂出版與復制的標準合同中,作者往往取得出版與分銷作品復制件收入中極小一部分和作品許可給其他商家的收入的大部分。38See,e.g.,Richard Curtis,How to Be Your Own Literary Agent:An Insider,s Guide to Getting Your Book Published (New York 2003),62-76,295-97;Nina Aragon,“Note:Calculating Artists’Royalties:An Analysis of the Courts’Dualistic Interpretations of Recording Contracts Negotiated in a Pre-Digital Age”(2017)2017 Cardozo Law Review De Novo 180,184-88;Lawrence Blake &Daniel K.Stuart,“Analysis of a Recording Contract”in Mark Halloran (ed.)The Musician,s Business and Legal Guide (Upper Saddle River 2008),282,312-13.這種情況很合理,因為復制作品的許可費低反映了復制件生產與分銷上的高昂成本,而許可交易中并不涉及這些成本。盡管獲得許可的出版商和唱片公司致力于音樂和電子書發(fā)行服務使作品可付費數(shù)字下載,但是,他們堅持認為他們只需支付以前用于銷售復制品的較低版稅率——這就是他們支付的費率。39See,e.g.,FBT Productions v.Aftermath Records,621 F.3d 958 (9th Cir 2010);Tavares v.Capitol Records,LLC,2013 U.S.Dist.LEXIS 34317 (ND Cal.2013);cf.Keiler v Harlequin Enters.,751 F.3d 64 (2d Cir.2013)(book publisher evaded 50% license royalty by sublicensing to its own subsidiary for an artificially low price).There,s been some litigation over this,with mixed results.One court concluded that the plain language of particular contracts obliges record labels to pay the larger licensing royalty for digital downloads.FBT Productions v Aftermath Records,621 F.3d at 964-66.A different court held that the plain language of an essentially similar contract supports the argument that royalties for digital download licenses should be the same as royalties for the sale of hard copies.Malmsteen v.Universal Music Group,940 F.Supp.2D 123,132-33 (SDNY 2013).
在某個層面上,這些做法都不會讓我們感到驚訝,因為控制合同條款的人將以最能促進自身利益的方式來構建這些條款。本文發(fā)現(xiàn),值得注意的是:最近的這些舉動很少引起法律學者的關注。事實上,盡管我們都有可能意識到這些動態(tài)發(fā)展(因為我們生活在這個世界上),但是如果你閱讀了大部分美國版權學者關于版權法修訂的文章,你會得出結論:我們不認為此事的發(fā)展像其他問題那樣令人擔憂。40這種說法是有爭議的。的確,有些學者會發(fā)現(xiàn)它具有攻擊性。每個撰寫版權文章的人都認為她的工作是專業(yè)創(chuàng)造者和專業(yè)創(chuàng)造,并認為她的建議將改善系統(tǒng)的運作方式,以便使創(chuàng)造者最終收益。我并不是說學者們不關心創(chuàng)作者,或者沒有提出旨在使他們受益的提案。相反,我認為我們的研究很少關注許多創(chuàng)作者在利用版權法賦予版權所有者權利時所面臨的實際障礙。我們幾乎所有人(我并不排除自己)未能檢查最近的版權實踐和提案如何為創(chuàng)作者提供比過去的做法和提案更少的金錢和控制。如果我們在實踐中對版權制度的機制有不完全的理解,那么我們解決它的想法很可能就會失敗。歐洲學者最近對這一系列問題給予了更多的關注,作為修改《歐盟數(shù)字單一市場版權指令》的一部分,41See European Commission,Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Market,14 Sept.2016,at http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/1/2016/EN/1-2016-593-EN-F1-1.PDF.Most of the controversy centres on whether proposals to rebalance the law to provide more robust rights to publishers and impose more onerous obligations on platforms are good or bad policy.See,e.g.,Pamela Samuelson,“Legally Speaking:The EU,s Controversial Digital Single Market Directive”61 Communications of the ACM (forthcoming November 2018);“Google Criticized for Push Against EU Copyright Reform”Financial Times,26 June 2018,at https://www.ft.com/content/a8031d7a-78a0-11e8-bc55-50daf11b720d;Martin Banks,“MEPs Rally Against Planned EU Copyright Reform”The Parliament,8 June 2018,at https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/articles/news/meps-rally-against-planned-eu-copyright-reform;K.G.Orphanides,“The EU,s Bizarre War on Memes is Totally Unwinnable”Wired,18 June 2018,at http://www.wired.co.uk/article/eu-meme-war-article-13-regulation.他們的報告令人沮喪?,F(xiàn)實中由法律賦予作者享有的權利和接受補償方面遇到重大障礙。42See,e.g.,Lionel Bently,Between a Rock and a Hard Place:The Problems Facing Freelance Creators in the UK Media Marketplace,A Briefing Document on Behalf of the Creators Rights Alliance,29 June 2009,at http://www.creatorsrights.org.uk/media/between.pdf;Gibson,et.al.,“The Business of Being An Author”;Kretschmer,“Does Copyright Law Matter?”然而,提出的解決方案看起來既溫和又不太可能帶來顯著改善。43目前歐盟指令草案第3章要求成員國確保作者和表演者定期收到關于其作品產生的收入和他們有權獲得的報酬的報告,并為作者和表演者提供申請額外報酬的機制。從他們的作品中獲得的收入與談判版權轉讓或許可協(xié)議時預期的收入嚴重不成比例。See note 40,above.然而,對于目前美國版權法改革來說,即便是這些細微修改似乎也是不可想象的措施。
如果我們所有人都能看到這些問題,或者至少看出個大概,并且至少我們中有些人會認為這些問題破壞了版權制度的價值和合法性,那么,為什么我們沒有提出更好的解決方案呢?
一種可能性是,我們中的許多人已經得出結論認為這是無望的、無法解決的。版權中間商有太多機會利用創(chuàng)作者,但很少有理由不去剝奪他們。在過去的三百年中,版權法已經納入了各種旨在保護創(chuàng)作者免受強勢中間商的規(guī)定,但沒有一個特別有效。在美國,版權的歷史充滿了法院判決,但是這些判決扼殺了法律保障作者權利的可能性。
盡管美國版權法一直要求只有通過簽名形式才能轉讓版權。44See,e.g.,Copyright Act of 1790,§ 2,1 Stat.124,1st Cong.2d Sess.(1790);Act.Of February 3,1831,§ § 6,7,21st Cong.2d Sess.(1831);Rev.Stat.§ § 4964,4965.但是,在十九世紀,出版商說服法院并提出這一先決條件并未限制他們從那些沒有登記和出版的作品中獲得版權的資格。45See,e.g.,Parton v Prang,18 F.Cas.1273,1278 (C.C.D.Mass.1872);Lawrence v Dana,15 F.Cas.26 (C.C.D.Mass 1869);Pulte v Derby,20 F.Cas.51 (C.C.D.Ohio 1852).See generally Jessica Litman,What Notice Did (2016)96 Boston University Law Review 717,724-31.版權保護期的延長46譯者注:the copyright renewal term中“renewal”原意是指期限的續(xù)展;從版權保護期限而言,是指在原版權法規(guī)定的期限上再延長版權保護的期限。根據(jù)《美國版權法》有關版權保護期限的規(guī)定,1978年1月1日之前首次出版的作品,其首次版權保護期限為28年,但可續(xù)期一次,續(xù)展保護期限亦為28年,后由美國國會規(guī)定在此基礎上再擴張保護19年,使得續(xù)展保護期限長達47年,而作品總的保護期限為78年。1978年1月1日之后制作的作品,其版權保護期則為作者有生之年加50年,但不能延長保護期限。旨在使在第一個版權保護期限內轉讓其版權的作者能夠重新協(xié)商任何許可或轉讓條款。47H.R.Rep.No.2222,60th Cong.14 (1909).See James J.Guinan,Jr.,“Duration of Copyright:Study No.30”77-79 (1957),reprinted in Copyright Society of the USA,Studies on Copyright vol.1,473,495-97 (1963);Barbara A.Ringer,“Renewal of Copyright:Study No.31”(1960)121-22 reprinted in Copyright Society of the USA,Studies on Copyright vol.2 (1963)503,517-18.然而,1943年音樂出版商M.Witmark&Sons說服了內部存在很大分歧的美國最高法院,即在原先保護期限內簽訂的轉讓延長保護期限的約定可以得到保護。48red Fisher Music Co.v M.Witmark &Sons,318 US 643 (1943).大多數(shù)人駁斥了這樣的論點,即法律應被解釋為保留作者重新協(xié)商許可或轉讓條款的機會:我們被告知,版權法的政策是保護作者——如果需要的話,保護自己——以及作者無權轉讓其續(xù)展利益的解釋進一步促使了這一政策。要求我們承認作者本性具有不負責任,他們經常非??释@得資金,以至于他們愿意以微薄的價格出售他們的作品,因此他們的轉讓不應該得到支持。這也不是由法院裁判作者利益是否取決于該問題的一方而不是另一方。如果作者沒有對其續(xù)展轉讓采取有效行為,那么,在他最需要時候就毫無意義。沒有人會因為他無法出售的東西而向作者支付費用。我們不能從熟悉的有關文學天才的貧困生活的故事中抽出法律原則。即便是我們這樣做了,我們也不能說這些人可以得到法律規(guī)則的幫助以阻止他們在外面最需要資金的時候意識到自己的財產。Ibid.at 656-57.在1976年的美國版權法中,國會用不可剝奪的權利取代續(xù)展期以終止任何轉讓、授權或者許可,并且明確規(guī)定作者有權終止“即使存在任何相反的約定”。4917 USC § 203(a)(5).See generally R.Anthony Reese,“Termination Formalities and Notice”(2016)96 Boston University Law Review 895;Authors Alliance,Termination of Transfers (2017),at https://www.authorsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/20180315-ToT-Templates.pdf.美國眾議院報告解釋說,與續(xù)展期的所有權相反,“采取此行為的權利不能提前放棄或者以合同約定的方式予以排除”。50H.R.Rep.No.1476,94th Cong.125 (1976).然而,版權的受讓人已經制定了旨在破壞不可剝奪終止權的方案,并且在很大程度上成功地說服了法院。51E.g.,Larson v Warner Brothers,640 Fed.Appx.(9th Cir.2016);Marvel Characters .Kirby,726 F.3d.119 (2d Cir.2013);DC Comics v.Pacif ci Pictures Corp.,545 Fed,Appx.678 (9th Cir.2013);Penguin Group (USA)Inc.v Steinbeck,537 F.3d 193,196 (2d Cir.2008),cert.denied,129 S.Ct.2383 (2009);Milne v Stephen Slesinger,Inc.,430 F.3d 1036,1039 (9th Cir.2005).See,e.g.,Lydia Pallas Loren,“Renegotiating the Copyright Deal in the Shadow of the Inalienable Right to Terminate”(2010)62 Fla.Law Review 1329;Peter Menell &David Nimmer,“Judicial Resistance to Copyright's Inalienable Right to Terminate Transfers”(2010)33 Columbia Journal of Law &the Arts 227.因此,在實踐中,作者重新獲得版權的能力受到了極大的限制。52版權所有者似乎也不愿意允許他們尋求的新的或增強的版權權利受到類似的重新收回條款的約束。美國國會目前正在考慮“CLASSICS法案”,這項法案將確定在美國法律將版權保護擴展到錄音之前錄制的錄音數(shù)字傳輸版稅的權利。See S.2334,title 2,115th Cong.(2018).雖然該法案被唱片業(yè)協(xié)會描述為“最終確保那些制作這些永恒歌曲的音樂家和歌唱家終于得到應有的利益”,但請參閱美國唱片業(yè)協(xié)會新聞稿:《213位音樂藝術家的歷史性聯(lián)盟呼吁國會通過經典法案,修復傳統(tǒng)藝術家的“1972年以前”漏洞》,載https://www.riaa.com/historic-coalition-213-musical-artists-calls-congress-pass -classics-act-fix-pre-1972-loophole-legacy-artists/,最后訪問日期:2018年2月13日。它沒有任何條款允許錄音的原作者重新獲得他們分配給唱片公司的權利的所有權。
同樣在1976年的法案中,美國國會縮小了獨立承包者創(chuàng)作的作品被視為雇用作品、依法由創(chuàng)作者的雇主作為作者的情形。根據(jù)美國現(xiàn)行版權法,員工創(chuàng)作的作品屬于雇傭作品。然而,由獨立承包者創(chuàng)作的作品,只有在創(chuàng)作者簽訂了雇傭作品合同時,才被視為雇用作品。5317 USC §§ 101,201.See Community for Creative Non Violence v Reid,490 US 730 (1989).In addition to imposing the requirement of a signed writing,section 101 limits the category of commissioned works made for hire to nine specific subject matter categories.See United States Copyright Office,Circular No.9:Works Made for Hire (2012),at https://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ09.pdf.但上述法律規(guī)則并不妨礙法院作出以下判決:出于勞動與稅法原因,那些不被視為雇員的個人創(chuàng)作的作品被認定為雇員創(chuàng)作的雇用作品54See,e.g.,JustMed v Byce,600 F.3d 1118 (9th Cir.2010);JAH IP Holdings v Mascio,2014 US Dist Lexis 16246 (D.Colo.2014).;未簽署雇用作品合同的獨立承包商創(chuàng)作的作品,由支付其創(chuàng)作的實體作為作者,因為該實體的決策機關使其成為作品的“主要作者”。55See 16 Casa Duse v Merkin,791 F.3d 247,260 (2d Cir.2015).
此外,盡管法院將法律按照有利于作者的原則進行解釋,但是這些解釋對作者控制作品或從作品中獲益的機會幾乎沒有實際改變。1993年,自由撰稿人起訴《紐約時報》,聲稱《紐約時報》將其作品轉許可使用在電子和在線數(shù)據(jù)庫上侵犯了他們的復制、發(fā)行和公開表演權。他們認為其最初允許《紐約時報》在報紙上刊登他們的文章,但并沒有允許《紐約時報》將文章轉許可給電子數(shù)據(jù)庫服務。《紐約時報》則認為,這是法律中的例外情形,即允許匯編作品出版者重印匯編作品中的一部分作品、對匯編作品的修改或者同一系列中的后期匯編5617 USC § 201(c).,并且有權將其報紙的內容全部許可給電子出版商。對該觀點,初審法院持贊成態(tài)度。57Tasini v NY Times,972 F.Supp.804 (SDNY 2007),rev,d 206 F.3d 161 (2d Cir.2000),a ff’d 533 US 483 (2001).到了2001年,美國最高法院在判決指出,法定例外的目的在于保護作者將作品許可給其他出版商的權利,同時使匯編作品的出版者可以印刷修訂版而無需再次獲得每個作者的許可。如果出版商可以將匯編作品中獨立作品許可給電子數(shù)據(jù)庫,那么法定例外的目的就會受挫。58NY Times v Tasini,533 US 483,499-506 (2001).
為了應對美國最高法院的判決,《紐約時報》宣布,他們不是對未經授權而將作品許可給電子數(shù)據(jù)庫的行為賠償27,000名自由撰稿人,而是基于作者放棄所有針對《紐約時報》與電子數(shù)據(jù)庫轉許可訴求的情況下,允許個人作者要求《紐約時報》繼續(xù)以數(shù)字形式提供所有作品而無需支付額外費用。否則《紐約報紙》將從其數(shù)據(jù)庫中清除所有這些自由撰稿人的作品。59See Felicity Barringer,“Freelancers Suing Again on Copyright”New York Times,July 6,2001,at https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/06/business/freelancers-suing-again-on-copyright.html:The Times,s current offer to freelancers --about 27,000 are affected,the newspaper estimates --allows them to request that their material remain available electronically.It contains a provision that“should you opt to have your work restored,you agree that you will not be compensated and that you will release The Times from any claims relating to your work appearing in electronic archives such as Nexis.”Any request must cover all of a freelancer,s contributions to The Times;no freelancers can pick and choose how much of their work can remain available.Ibid.See“Tasini v.The New York Times:A Note on the Consequences”2 Complete Review Quarterly #3,August 2001,at http://www.complete-review.com/quarterly/vol2/issue3/tasini.htm.此外,為應對訴訟,《紐約時報》和其他大型出版商堅持要求所有自由撰稿人簽署雇傭或者包含授權出版商未來利用他們作品而無需支付額外費用的全部權利的合同。60See O,Rourke,“Bargaining in the Shadow”,pp.13-605.正如莫林·奧洛克(Maureen O’Rourke)所說,盡管在案件判決中給了自由撰稿人一個討價還價的籌碼,但是缺乏議價能力導致他們無法通過許可受到司法保護的權利獲得額外的對價。61Ibid.at 606.
美國境外作者的處境也差不多。最近針對旨在提高所有創(chuàng)作者數(shù)量的歐盟版權法改革的研究指出,作者們缺乏討價還價的能力導致目前為止所實施的改革效果不佳。62See,e.g.,Jane C.Ginsburg &Pierre Sirinelli,“Private International Law Aspects of Authors’ Contracts:The Dutch and French Examples”(2015)39 Colum.J.L.&Arts 171;Severine Dusollier,Caroline Ker,Maria Iglesias,&Yolanda Smith,Contractual Arrangements Applicable to Creators:Law and Practice of Selected Member States,Study Commissioned by the European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies(2014),at http://www.cross-innovation.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/IPOL-JURI_ET2014493041_EN.pdf;Europe Economics IViR,Remuneration of Authors of Books and Scientific Journals,Translators,Journalists and Visual Artists for the Use of their Works:Study Prepared for the European Commission (2016),at https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/remuneration_of_authors_final_report.pdf.
大多時候,版權學者的研究會忽視金錢問題。即使我們專注于作者的補償,也不會總關注這些錢是否真正進入創(chuàng)作者的口袋。最近,我們一直要求版權集體管理組織對那些使用時僅改變作品一點點內容的情形予以管理。63See Ariel Katz,“Copyright Collectives:Good Solution but for Which Problem”in Rochelle C.Dreyfuss,Diane Zimmerman &Harry First (eds.),Working Within the Boundaries of Intellectual Property:Innovation Policy for the Knowledge Society (New York 2010);see,e.g.,Music Modernization Act,H.R.5447,115th Cong.§ 102 (2018)(establishing a new music publisher-owned collective to receive and distribute royalties for a new statutory blanket license for the reproduction of musical compositions in the course of digital streaming).See generally Daniel Gervais (ed.),Collective Management of Copyright and Related Rights 3rd ed.(Frederick 2016).我們知道收錢很容易,但弄清楚如何將這些收入劃給有資格的主張者是非常困難的。64See,e.g.,William Fisher III,Promises to Keep:Technology,Law &the Future of Entertainment(Stanford,CA 2004),207-36;Daniel Gervais,(Re)structuring Copyright:A Comprehensive Path to International Copyright Reform (Cheltenham 2017),238-56;European Commission,Directive on collective management of copyright (4 February 2014),at http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/copyright/management/;European Commission Sta ff Working Document Impact Assessment Accompanying the Document Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on collective management of copyright and related rights and multi-territorial licensing of rights in musical works for online uses in the internal market 19-29 (11 July 2012)at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012SC0204&from=EN[hereinafter Commission Staff Working Document”].盡管根據(jù)法定的、監(jiān)管的與合同上的規(guī)定,授權集體許可需要將收益分配給創(chuàng)作者與其他版權所有人,但是目前我們用于決定如何分配和支付的機制是不完善的,65See,e.g.,Litman,“Real Copyright Reform”,p.50 &n.229.甚至是存在嚴重缺陷的。66See,e.g.,Copyright Royalty Board New Developments,10 March 2017,at https://www.crb.gov/ (announcing suspension of royalty distribution proceedings required by 17 USC § 1007);Commission Staff Working Document,pp.15-29.由于集體管理組織本身就是中間商,他們自然會保護自己在版權食物鏈中的位置。67See Jonathan Band &Brandon Butler,“Some Cautionary Tales about Collective Licensing”(2013)21 Michigan State International Law Review 687;see,e.g.,Molly Long,“Publishers Raise New Concerns Over SGAE Practices”IQ Magazine,June 11,2018,at https://www.iq-mag.net/2018/06/publishers-new-concerns-sgae-practices/#.Wx_5t1Mvw74.我們獲知有些集體組織直接將收入中至少一部分分給創(chuàng)作者,有些是向所有權人付費并且依靠所有權人再向創(chuàng)作者轉移相應的份額,還有些是向代表創(chuàng)作者的組織發(fā)放資金,并將這些組織的任務確定為是否以及如何將資金分配給其成員。還有一些是將這筆收入存入一個“有息賬戶”,直到潛在的主張者能夠就誰有權收到多少份額的內容達成一致,才根據(jù)他們的協(xié)議分配資金。還有一些根本不支付許可使用費,而是將這筆錢用來支付行政費用并資助好作品。68See,e.g.,Hester Wijminga et.al.,World Intellectual Property Association International Survey on Private Copying:Law and Practice 2016(2017),at http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_1037_2017.pdf.
大多數(shù)學者都沒有過多關注上述這個問題,或試圖確定不同的集體組織使用何種機制來決定分配他們收益。這種做法就像是只要規(guī)定消費者和使用者必須購買門票才能欣賞版權保護的作品,我們的工作就已完成了。作為行使權力的外在表現(xiàn)形式,收費具有政策上的正當性,如此一來,作品使用者能夠明白欣賞一件受版權法保護的作品是具有商業(yè)價值的。當許多人因無法負擔或者不愿意支付費用而錯過接觸作品時,這在某種意義上,會導致作品的浪費。盡管如此,但是我們仍然認為消遣版權作品是需要付費的。69Cf.Jane C.Ginsburg,“Fair Use for Free,or Permitted-but-Paid?”(2015)29 Berkeley Technology Law Journal 1383.即使這就是我們這樣做的原因,我們還是得這樣說。另一方面,如果我們聲稱收費是為了將錢存入創(chuàng)作者的口袋,那么在說這是一個好主意之前,需要瞧瞧到底有多少錢可以轉入創(chuàng)作者手中。至少在美國,這個問題并沒有受到法學學者的關注。70But see Peter DiCola,“Money From Music:Survey Evidence on Musicians,Revenue and Lessons About Copyright Incentives”(2013)55 Arizona Law Review 301.There are a number of recent economic and legal studies from Europe,with discouraging conclusions.See,e.g.,Martin Kretschmer,“Copyright and Contracts:Regulating Creator Contracts:The State of the Art and a Research Agenda”(2010)18 Journal of Intellectual Property Law 141;Ruth Towse,“Economics of Copyright Collecting Societies and Digital Rights:Is there a Case for a Centralised Digital Copyright Exchange?”(2012)9 Review of Economic Research on Copyright Issues 3;Christian Handke &Ruth Towse,“Economics of Copyright Collecting Societies”(2007)38 International Review of Intellectual Property &Competition Law 937;Ruth Towse,“Copyright and Artists:A View From Cultural Economics”(2006)20 Journal Economic Surveys 567;Europe Economics IViR,”Remuneration of Authors”;Martin Kretschmer,Private Copying and Fair Compensation:An Empirical Study of Copyright Levies in Europe(2011),at https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/310183/ipresearch-faircomp-201110.pdf.
一些版權學者已經開始提出“創(chuàng)作者是否以及何時回應版權所承諾的回報”這樣的問題,并嘗試利用如經濟學、心理學、神經學、歷史等法學學科之外的觀點來分析是否可能給出答案。71E.g.,Glynn Lunney,Copyright's Excess:Money and,Music in the US Recording Industry (Cambridge 2018);Christopher Sprigman,“Copyright and Creative Incentives:What We Know(and Dont)”(2017)55 Houston Law Review 451;Rebecca Tushnet,“Economies of Desire:Fair Use and Marketplace Assumptions”(2009)51 William &Mary Law Review 513;Diane Zimmerman,“Copyr,ight As Incentives:Did We Just Imagine That?”(2010)12 Theoretical Inquiries in Law 29;Martin Senftleben,“Copyright,Creators,&Societys Need for Autonomous Art -The Blessing and Curse of Monetary Incentives”(2017)in Giblin &Weatherall,What If We Could Reimagine Copyright? p.25.See also CREATeCopyright Research Centre at the University of Glasgow,Copyright Evidence Wiki,at http://www.copyrightevidence.org/evidence-wiki/index.php/Copyright_Evidence (cataloguing empirical studies).但是,在不知道創(chuàng)造者是否以及會在什么情況下確切會收到這些回報時,很難評估這個問題的答案是否具有現(xiàn)實意義。
由于人們認為探究作者報酬問題毫無希望,我們多數(shù)已經放棄了對該問題的審視。如果這個認識是正確的話,那么現(xiàn)在可能到了重新審視這個問題的時候。然而,這要求我們面對我們不再思考的問題以及我們很少注意到的版權體系的特征,因為我們已經習慣了版權體系無法兌現(xiàn)版權理論承諾的方式。
在余下部分,本文將會提出我們很少涉及但應當提及的一個原因,即版權制度通常無法回報創(chuàng)作者是在于我們對合法財產權的假設會扭曲我們對版權法運作方式的看法。版權專家認為版權體系運作的方式與應該采用的方式是理所當然的。身為專業(yè)法律人士的我們應當明白:財產權的法律特征是法律教育最基本的基石,版權作為一種財產權,也應當具有財產權的法律特征。
控制權是財產權的一個內容。針對將版權視為一種財產形式的爭議,絕大多數(shù)是關于財產所有人有權行使的控制權上。72See,e.g.,Lawrence Lessig,Free Culture(New York 2004),83-173;Patry,Moral Panics and the Copyright Wars,pp.109-132;Sandra Aistars,Devin Hartline,&Mark Schultz,“Copyright Principles and Priorities to Foster a Creative Digital Marketplace”(2016)23 George Mason Law Review 769;Michael Grynberg,“Property is a Two-Way Street:Personal Copyright Use and Implied Authorization”(2010)79 Fordham Law Review 435;Robert P.Merges,“The Concept of Property in the Digital Era”(2008)45 Houston Law Review 1239;Adam Mossoff,“Is Copyright Property?”(2005)42 San Diego Law Review 29.盡管控制權是財產權一個重要內容,但是控制權不是唯一或者最重要的內容。畢竟我們有很多不同的方法在不賦予他人財產權的情況下給予各人一項法律控制權。
財產權之所以特別是在于權利的可轉讓性。73Accord,Ginsburg,“The Place of the Author in Copyright”,at pp.66-67.由于將某物視為財產可更易銷售,那么我們將一項權利定義為財產權也就是為了鼓勵權利的交易。74See,e.g.,Jessica Litman,“Information Privacy/Information Property”(2000)52 Stanford Law Review 1283,1295-1301.財產可轉讓性這一本質特征極易被律師視為財產權的應有之義。版權作為財產權,按照財產權的可轉讓性特征,作者轉讓因創(chuàng)作而享有版權之后,版權人便享有版權所具有的權力。這使得出版商、唱片公司和其他中間商機構按照自己的行為方式行事。75See,e.g.,Fisher,Promises to Keep,pp.47-70,204-05;Bently,“Between a Rock and a Hard Place”,pp.15-21;Kretschmer,“Does Copyright Law Matter?”,pp.32-33.這種觀點會讓非法律人士感到詫異,但對法律人士而言,這就是財產的第二屬性罷了。由于出版商和唱片公司擁有版權,版權體系賦予出版商和唱片公司為自身利益構建許可交易以及設置許可期限與條件。
因為我們是法律專業(yè)人士,所以我們知道財產權的受讓人能夠取代轉讓人的地位,并且有權行使財產權所具有的權力。我們之所以假定原始財產權人有機會從權利的價值中獲取補償,是因為這就是財產運作的方式。實際上,版權律師和學者有時會互換使用“作者”和“版權所有者”這兩個詞,并將它們視為同義詞。76See,e.g.,Jane C Ginsburg,“Copyright Use and Excuse on the Internet”(2000)24 Columbia-VLA Journal of Law &the Arts 1,41;Ralph Oman,“Going Back to First Principles:The Exclusive Rights of Authors Reborn”(2008)8 Journal of High Technology Law 169,176-77,180.畢竟,作者是最初的版權所有者,而接受她轉讓的這些權利的人有權取代她的地位。在大多數(shù)情況下,在法律的眼中,所有者就是作者。77See,e.g.,Bhamati Viswanathan &Adam Mossoff,Open-Access Mandates and the Seductively False Promise of“Free”,Center for the Protection of Intellectual Property Briefing Paper 4 (April 2017),at http://apo.org.au/node/93506.Moral rights,of course,are an important exception to this rule.Even in countries with robust moral rights protection,however,those rights appear to have negligible economic value and restrain the exploitation of copyrighted works only in extreme cases.
我們可以更加細致地了解版權作為財產權在世界上的實際表現(xiàn),應該審視我們對財產的看法,以確定我們的假設可能阻止了我們所能看到的事。
本文將岔開講述一則小故事,該故事粗看起來似乎與版權法毫無關聯(lián)。距離現(xiàn)在大約400年的十六、十七世紀,歐洲殖民者航行到北美洲并以自己主權的名義開發(fā)這片新領地。78See generally Robert T.Anderson,Bethany Berger,Sarah Krakoff &Philip E.Frickey,American Indian Law:Cases and Commentary 3rd ed.(St.Paul 2015),22-25.
不幸的是,在他們來之前,這片領地已經有幾個世紀一直生活在這的人。無論如何,歐洲定居者還是進來了。有時候,這些歐洲定居者有可能和土著部落共同生活在這片土地上,至少最初是可以的。在其他區(qū)域,土著印第安部落占據(jù)著歐洲人想要控制的區(qū)域。79See generally,e.g.,Nell Jessup Newton,(ed.),Cohen’s Handbook of Federal Indian Law:2005 edition (Newark 2005).畢竟印第安人不是白人,也不是基督徒和農民,他們并沒有將土地用于歐洲人認為的最好的和最有效的目的。80See ibid.;Eric Kades,“The Dark Side of Efficiency:Johnson v.M’Intosh and the Expropriation of American Indian Lands”(2000)148 U.Penn.Law Review 1065,1076-77.一些歐洲定居者對于從土著那里奪取土地沒有絲毫歉疚。暴力沖突由此發(fā)生。81See Bethany Berger,“Red:Racism and the American Indian”(2009)56 UCLA Law Review 591,603-07.See,e.g.,Ethan A Schmidt,The Divided Dominion:Social Conflict and Indian Hatred in Early Virginia (Boulder 2014),45-61 (Anglo-Powhatan wars between English settlers in the Virginia Colony and the Powhatan tribe);Stephen Feeley,“Before Long to be Good Friends:’ Diplomatic Perspectives of the Tuscarora War”in Michelle LeMaster &Bradford J.Wood (eds.),Creating and Contesting Carolina (Columbia 2013),140 (Tuscarora war between Tuscarora tribe and British,German and Dutch settlers in North Carolina);Evan Haefeli,“Kieft,s War and the Cultures of Violence in Colonial America”in Michael A.Bellesiles,(ed.),Lethal Imagination:Violence and Brutality in American History(New York 1999),17 (war between Dutch settlers in the New Netherland colony and the Lenape tribe).
最終,在殺了足夠多的人與破壞了足夠多的財產后,定居者與部落約定劃分他們之間有爭議的土地。82See Stuart Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land (Cambridge,MA 2005),85-111.但是,定居者一直在尋求擴大領土的機會,致使之前的約定處于不穩(wěn)定狀態(tài)。在接下來兩百年左右的時間里,定居者利用金錢、游說、威脅、公民暴力和軍事力量來說服或強迫印第安部落向西遷移到更偏遠和不太理想的地方。83See,e.g.,Anderson et.al,American Indian Law,p.50;Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.191-227.在遷移這一路上,隨之而來的是針對印第安部落人的更多暴力事件。84See,e.g.,Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.121-29;Newton,Cohen’s Handbook,pp.35-36,39-40,44;Angie Deboe,A History of the Indians of the United States(Norman,OK 1970)101-16;Angie Deboe,The Road to Disappearance:A History of the Creek Indians (Norman,OK 1966)72-107.在十九世紀的大部分時間里,美國軍隊都忙于與印第安部落進行一場又一場戰(zhàn)爭。85See Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.237-47;see,e.g.,Newton,Cohen,s Handbook,pp.51-54,71;E.A.Schwartz,The Rogue River Indian War and Its Aftermath:1859-1980(Norman,OK 1997)69-160.
美國的法院認為,盡管印第安人實際上沒有控制這些土地,但是他們占領這些土地的權利是可被強制執(zhí)行的。86E.g.,Johnson’s Lessee v.M’Intosh,21 US 543 (1923);see Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.150-90;Lindsay G.Robinson,“The Judicial Conquest of Native America:The Story of Johnson v.M,Intosh”in Carol e Goldberg,Kevin K.Washburn &Philip P.Frickey (eds.),Indian Law Stories (New York 2011),29.美利堅合眾國聯(lián)邦政府因為向歐洲裔美國人開放印第安人土地以供定居面臨巨大的壓力。87See Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.195-226.同時,通過金錢和戰(zhàn)爭的方式趕走部落的人。那些曾同意重新安置在密西西比河以西的印第安部落又被要求搬遷到其他地方,但是他們越來越不愿意這種“連根拔起式”的遷移88See ibid.at pp.197-201,212-17,222-26;Newton,Cohen’s Handbook,pp.51-54,73.,再加上政府的土地已經用完。89See Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,228-36.隨之而來的是出現(xiàn)更多暴力事件。90See,e.g.,Anderson et.al,American Indian Law,pp.74-77;Newton,Cohen,s Handbook,pp.70-71,73.
美國白人憎惡部落控制著這些土地,他們認為這些土地理應歸于他們。他們通過一系列包括一些非法手段在內的方式,從土著部落人手里搶奪土地。91See Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.214-27,237-45.
最終,一系列法律終止了美國白人的這些伎倆,其中最著名的是《美國道斯法案》,也稱為《1887年分配法案》。92General Allotment Act of Feb.8,1887,24 Stat.388,ch.119.See also Act for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory,Pub.L.55-515,30 Stat.495 (1898)(“Curtis Act”);Dawes Act Amendment of 1891,26 Stat.794 (1891);General Allotment Act Amendment of 1906,Pub.L.59-149,34 Stat.182 (1906)(“Burke Act”);Act Authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to allot homesteads to the natives of Alaska,Pub.L.59-171,34 Stat.197 (1906).For historical background on the allotment policy and a brief description of initial allotment efforts preceding the Dawes Act,see generally Newton,Cohen’s Handbook,66-69,75-78.《美國道斯法案》并沒有剝奪部落人手中的土地,而是將部落土地的所有權劃給印第安人。該法案將印第安部落控制的大片土地分成了160英畝的地塊,并以短期信托與絕對地產所有權的方式將每個地塊分給每一個印第安戶主。在信托期間,法律允許印第安權利人將其土地再轉租給美國白人。信托期屆滿之后,擁有土地的印第安戶主可以自由地將其出售給任何買主。任何未分配的地塊被當成“剩余土地”,美國聯(lián)邦政府可以從部落手中購買,之后還可出售給非印第安人。本文認為,在支持當時法案的人中間,有一部分人是相信該法案賦予了印第安人對地塊的所有權。但是,也有部分人的想法是消極的。無論如何,若法律的目的之一是鼓勵土地從印第安部落流轉到美國白人的話,那結果無疑是成功的。很快,絕大多數(shù)印第安部落的土地通過印第安人的手轉售給了非印第安人。最終獲勝的是白人定居者與土地投機者,而印第安人最終只能陷入貧困和流離失所。93Banner,How the Indians Lost their Land,pp.257-93;see Judith V.Royster,“The Legacy of Allotment”(1995)27 Ariz.St.L.J.1,10-14.In 1934,Congress repudiated the allotment program.The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 prohibited further allotment of Indian land and sought to return to the tribes some portion of the 90 million acres of Indian land that had passed into non-Indian ownership.Indian Reorganization Act,Pub.L.No.73-383,48 Stat.984 (1934)(codified as amended at 25 U.S.C.§§ 461-479 (1976).See Blackfeet Tribe of Indians v.State of Montana,729 F.2d 1192 (9th Cir.1984)(en banc),aff,d 471 US 759 (1985).
本文試圖從上述故事中析出與版權律師所熟知的法律之間的幾個相似點。這個故事出現(xiàn)的時間與上述故事差不多。在十六世紀至十七世紀,英國出版同業(yè)公會(Stationers’Company)的成員壟斷了出版,并且通過限于成員之間的橫向貿易來進一步鞏固壟斷。94See,e.g.,L.Ray Patterson,Copyright in Historical Perspective (Nashville 1968),28-77;Ian Gadd,“The Stationers Company in England Before 1710”in Isabella Alexander &H.Tomas Gomez-Arostegui (eds.),Research Handbook on the History of Copyright Law (Cheltenham 2018),81,88-92.經過一個多世紀的出版業(yè)務的控制,出版同業(yè)工會確信他們有權繼續(xù)享有這樣的壟斷權。畢竟,他們在印刷和銷售文本上面投入了大量資金和精力。當議會拒絕重新授權出版同業(yè)公會成員印刷壟斷的許可法案時,出版同業(yè)公會進行了艱苦的游說,以說服政府恢復原來的許可法案。95See Cyprian Blagden,The Stationers Company:A History 1403-1959(London 1960),153-77;Ronan Deazley,On the Origin of the Right to Copy (Oxford 2004),1-50;Isabella Alexander,“All Change for the Digital Economy:Copyright and Business Models in the Early Eighteenth Century”(2010)25 Berkeley Technology Law Journal 1351;Gadd,“The Stationers Company in England Before 1710”,pp.92-95.
本文不想過于簡化《英國安娜法令》制定過程中所涉及的復雜的衡量因素96Statute of Anne,8.Anne,c.19 (1710).See,e.g.,Deazley,On the Origin of the Right to Copy,pp.31-50;Alexander,“All Change for the Digital Economy”,pp.1354-62;H.Tomas Gomez-Arostegui,“The Untold Story of the First Copyright Suit under the Statute of Anne in 1710”(2010)25 Berkeley Technology Law Journal 1247,1251-58;Jessica Litman,“Readers’ Copyright”(2011)58 Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA 325,332-35.,或者減少有關包括保護大學、讀者與消費者的規(guī)定97See ArielKatz,“Copyright,Exhaustion,and the Role of Libraries in the Ecosystem of Knowledge”(2016)13 I/S Journal of Law &Policy for the Information Society 81,84-86;Litman,“Readers, Copyright”,pp.333-35.,或者建議那些法律支持者不要相信法律會賦予作者權利。因為無論何種意圖,最終法律都很好地服務于出版同業(yè)公會的成員。法律鼓勵作者將版權轉讓給印刷商和出版商,畢竟這些人都是出版業(yè)者。此后三百年,版權交易局面就這樣維持著。98See Patterson,Copyright in Historical Perspective,pp.143-50,213-21.
世界其他地方都遵循這一模式。99See,e.g.,OrenBracha,“The Adventures of the Statuteof Anneinthe Land of Unlimited Possibilities:The Life of a Legal Transplant”(2010)25 Berkeley Technology Law Journal 1427.幾乎每個國家,都將保護作者視為版權保護的第一要義。隨后通過版權轉讓,出版商和其他中間商控制與擁有了版權。100See Jane C.Ginsburg &Edouard Treppoz,International Copyright Law US and EU Perspectives:Text and Cases (Cheltenham 2015);Paul Goldstein &Bernt Hugenholz,International Copyright 2nd ed.(Oxford 2010),244-69;Ginsburg,“The Place of the Author in Copyright”,pp.63-66.在資本主義既是經濟制度又是主流信仰的美國,法院都特別渴望得出這樣的結論:即使沒有證據(jù)證明版權轉讓,法院依舊假定作者已將版權轉讓給出版商。法院的這種傾向性觀點到現(xiàn)在依然存在。101See Litman,“What Notice Did”,pp.732-34;see,e.g.,Bleistein v Donaldson Lithographing Co.,188 U.S.239,248-49 (1903);Edward Thompson Co.Am.Law Book Co.,119 F.217,219 (C.C.S.D.N.Y.1902);Colliery Eng'r Co.v United Correspondence Schs.,94 F.152,153(C.C.S.D.N.Y.1899).當版權轉讓這一情況不能簡單地假定時,法院在版權制度中創(chuàng)造了雇傭作品規(guī)則的學說。102See Catherine Fisk,“Authors at Work:The Origins of the Work-for-Hire Doctrine”(2003)15 Yale J.L &Humanities 1.
上述兩則故事的寓意在于,當最初不擁有某一資源的控制權時,通過將該資源認定為財產權的對象是獲得資源控制權極為有效的辦法。103譯者注:在《美國道斯法案》的故事中,原本美國白人對土地并不享有控制權,這些土地天然屬于印第安部落。但是,美國白人希望控制這些土地。他們通過戰(zhàn)爭、金錢等合法的、非法的方式,奪走印第安部落的土地,但帶來了一系列的戰(zhàn)爭?!睹绹浪狗ò浮返某霈F(xiàn)雖然客觀上并沒有“明擺著”瓜分印第安人的土地,而是通過先將部落土地分割給部落個人,然后再鼓勵印第安人轉售手里的土地給美國白人。如此一來,美國白人通過土地轉讓的方式獲得的土地就洗去了搶奪印第安人土地的“罪惡”。土地轉讓成為美國白人獲得土地控制權的合法方式,而原先的土地控制者——印第安人失去了土地所有人的地位。同樣,在《英國安娜法令》這則故事中也是同樣的邏輯。在十八世紀至十九世紀,盡管出版商壟斷了出版行業(yè),但是并不天然享有作者的版權。出版商獲得版權的方式很簡單也很壟斷,因為當時社會背景下,出版作品是需要付出包括印刷、銷售等各個環(huán)節(jié)的高昂成本。很顯然作者是無法支付的,他們只能將作品轉讓給出版商以換取作品的出版。也正是因作者轉讓了作品,出版商獲得了作品的控制權并且取代了作者的地位。出版商要求法律針對作者的保護也應當同等轉移到他們身上。當法律將以前不屬于財產的東西轉變?yōu)樨敭a權對象時,將對導致對財產的控制最終流向具有最大議價能力的人手中。如果你們希望獲得諸如印第安部落的土地,或者希望重新控制作品文本的印刷,那么創(chuàng)建新的財產權將會是一個好辦法。盡管有時會財產權的原始權利人會在轉讓中受益,但多數(shù)情況并非總是如此。有時世界會因財產轉讓而改善,有時候卻沒有。
所以這就是財產權轉讓的結果——巨額資金充斥著當下版權制度,但真正落入作者手里的卻只是一小部分。有觀點認為,作者手里的這一小部分的比重還在一直降低。正如本文上述所言,我們生活的世界充斥著作者收益過少這樣的證據(jù),但是當我們談及版權法改革時,我們卻常選擇對這個問題視而不見。在過去的三百年里,我們一再擴張版權并且通過新的許可與支付義務來增加版權法的內容。104See,e.g.,Neil Weinstock Netanel,Copyright,s Paradox(Oxford 2008),54-80.然而,我們還是沒有充分關注控制作品收益的中間商是否以及如何將其中的收益分配給作者。因為我們清楚財產權的運作方式,并且相信版權擴張中得到的收益會惠及作者的假設,所以我們不會去調查作者將版權轉讓給他人這一“黑匣子”般的過程。
但是實際情況是,我們知道或應當知道這些中間商通常不會這樣做。如果我們認為中間商的做法有問題(我偶爾也認為),但是我們不仔細檢查“黑匣子”里面,那么我們將無法弄清楚該如何修復它。這意味著我們要問一些我們不習慣問的而且版權人也不習慣回答的問題。105I don,t mean to minimize the practical difficulties posed by intermediaries, insistence that contract terms and payments are proprietary information that they are entitled to keep secret.See,e.g.,Peter DiCola &David Touve,“Licensing in the Shadow of Copyright”(2014)17 Stanford Technology Law Review 397,443-57.(順便說一下,如果我們認為作者從他們的作品中獲得如此小部分的收益并不是一個問題,那么對所謂的“價值差距”大驚小怪就沒有意義。如果我們相信經濟學和政策支持這樣的結論,即作者認為作品所產生的巨額收益中的微小比例作為支付對價是合適的,那么,干涉中間商之間的談判進而分析是誰拿走了收益中最大一部分的做法是不正當?shù)?。?/p>
如果上述問題值得解決,那么我們現(xiàn)在應該明白向版權人投入更多資金、給予他們更多控制,并且相信這次中間商會與作者分享更多收益的做法,并不是一個有用的解決方案。
本文所強調的是本文論點針對有限的范圍,本文的觀點并不是說版權可轉讓性本身是個問題,也不認為我們可以通過限制版權轉讓或使版權不可剝奪來解決問題。畢竟有德國這一例子存在。德國將版權視為可以轉讓的權利,至少在形式上是這樣106See German Copyright Act §§ 29,31.,但德國作者似乎也沒有比其他國家的作者享有收益上的優(yōu)勢。107See,e.g.,Martin Kretschmer &Philip Hardwick,Authors' Earnings from Copyright and Non-Copyright Sources:A Survey of 25,000 British and German Writers (Dorset 2007),avail able at https://microsites.bournemouth;Kretschmer,“Does Copyright Law Matter?”,pp.12-15;Sentfleben,“Copyright,Creators,and Society's Need for Autonomous Art”,p.53.See al so,e.g.,Ginsburg &Sirinel li,“Private International Law Aspects of Authors, Contracts”(examining private international l aw obstacles to implementing author-protective legisl ation enacted in France and the Netherl ands).本文認為財產權的可轉讓性具有雙重作用。一方面,無論何時,只要我們在財富與議價能力上存在巨大差異,轉讓自由的財產權的分配將會反映出并且還會加大這種差異的存在。另一方面,身為律師的我們,從學生時代就已接受有關財產權的法律信條,這導致我們無法理解財產權自由轉讓會導致上述差異的存在。我們不會充分關注財產權轉讓這種機制導致實力雄厚的人通過利用有價值的條款來控制不那么強大的人的做法。
這個問題在某種程度上確實是難以解決的嗎?或者為了解決這個問題,我們可以做些什么呢?
二十一世紀的版權是拜占庭式(byzantine)108譯者注:拜占庭式是指四世紀至十五世紀在以君士坦丁堡(即古希臘城市拜占庭)為中心的拜占庭帝國(即東羅馬帝國)興起和流行的藝術風格,拜占庭式的風格強調華麗的外部形式與結構。此處本文作者認為當下版權法生態(tài)系統(tǒng)就是拜占庭式的,言下之意是認為版權法看似華麗實則問題很多。的法律生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。本文認為,我們仔細地從內部探索該生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的真正價值是為了理解該系統(tǒng)一直漠然對待創(chuàng)作者的原因。這種做法將會涉及作者與版權人所構建的交互方式,并且找出從何處——若有該處的話——干涉將會是有效的。
本文無法提出一個簡單的解決辦法。我們或許可以——但(實際)不太可能——通過調整有關版權所有權的法律或者修改版權許可規(guī)則以實現(xiàn)改進至少一部分作者的處境。109See,e.g.,Julie E.Cohen Configuring the Networked Self(New Haven 2012),223-66;Gervais,Colle tive Management of Copyright and Related Rights,pp.191-215;William Patry,How to Fix Copyright(Oxford 2011),177-88;Jessica Silbey,The Eureka Myth:Creators,Innovators and Everyday Intellectual Property (Stanford 2015)274-85;Loren,“Renegotiating the Copyright Deal”;R.Anthony Reese,“Optional Copyright Renewal:Lessons for Designing Copyright Systems,The 38 Annual Horace J.Manges Lecture”(2015)39 Columbia Journal of Law &the Arts 145;Molly Van Houweling,“Making Copyright Work for Authors Who Write to Be Read”(2015)38 Columbia Journal of Law &the Arts 381.但是賦予版權所有人更多權利110See,e.g.,H.R.1836,Fair Play Fair Pay Act,115th Cong.(2017)(giving sound recording copyright owners new exclusive right to perform their sound recordings over AM and FM radio);Christophe Geiger,Oleksandr Bulayenko,&Giancarlo Frosio,“The Introduction of a Neighbouring Right for Press Publishers at EU Level:The Unneeded (and Unwanted)Reform”(2017)39 EIPR 202.也無法惠及作者,除非直到我們對使創(chuàng)作者從他們創(chuàng)作中分得一小部分收益的動因了解更加深入。另外,調整法律以提升出版商對平臺的議價能力或者提升平臺對出版商的議價能力111See,e.g.,Joint Comments of Amer.Ass’n of Independent Music et.al.,U.S.Copyright Office:In re Section 512 Study,Docket No.2015-7 (31 March 2016),at https://www.riaa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Music-Community-Submission-in-re-DMCA-512-FINAL-7559445.pdf;Judy Chu&Tom Marino,Victims of IP Theft Need Better Protection,The Hill,March 12,2014,at http://thehill.com/opinion/op-ed/200630-victims-of-ip-theftneed-better-protection;JonathanTaplin,“Is it Time to Break Up Google?”New York Times,22 April 2017,at https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/22/opinion/sunday/is-it-time-to-break-up-google.html;StephenCarlisle,DMCA“Takedown”Notices:Why“Takedown”Should Become“Takedown and Stay Down”and Why It’s Good for Everyone,Nova Southeastern University Copyright Office Blog,23 July 2014,at http://copyright.nova.edu/dmca-takedown-notices/;Elliot Harmon,“Notice and Stay Down”is Really Filter Everything,Electronic Frontier Foundation Deeplinks Blog,21 Jan.2016,at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/01/notice-and-stay-down-really-filter-everything.都無法讓作者的生活變得更好。到目前為止,并沒有在任何未通過的法律或條約提案中看到太多(與之有關)的可能?;蛘呤沁@些提案僅僅是提案而不會有任何機會被采納,因為就像里德·愛思唯爾(Reed Elsevier)、維旺迪(Vivendi)、迪士尼或谷歌等公司,它們自然不會支持無法使它們變得更好的新法律或條約。版權中間商有足夠強的政治權力來沖淡改革提案,直到這些提案對創(chuàng)作者沒有實際用處,而且近期他們通過自己的權力按照有利于自己的方向修改立法與條約提案。112See,e.g.,Rebecca Giblin,“Should It Be Copyright,s Role to Fill Houses with Books?”in Susy Frankel &Daniel Gervais (eds.)Intellectual Property and Regulation of the Internet:The Nexus with Human and Economic Development (Wellington,NZ 2017);Margot E.Kaminski,“The Capture of International Intellectual Property Through the US Trade Regime”(2014)87 S.Cal.Law Review 977.在過去的20年,我們已經見證了許多未能成功的努力,而這些努力試圖改革美國與國際版權法立法進程以弱化強權力版權操縱者的影響。113See,e.g.,Gaelle Krikorian &Amy Kapczynski (eds.),Access to Knowledge in the Age of Intellectual Property (New York 2010);Lawrence Lessig,Republic,Lost:How Money Corrupts Congress -And a Plan to Stop it (New York 2011).這些努力面臨著看似無法克服的障礙。版權中間商對于國內和國際立法程序的執(zhí)念、以及他們當前對調動各種資源征服對手的熱情,意味著增強作者權改革的實際機會非常渺茫。
本文懷疑最終可能得出的結論是:那些有希望的提案卻與版權法無關。許多作者因缺乏議價能力導致無法行使法律賦予他們的權利。114See,e.g.,Bently,“Between a Rock and a Hard Place”;Ginsburg &Sirinelli,“Private International Law Aspects of Authors,Contracts”;O’Rourke,“Bargaining in the Shadow”.如果關鍵問題是缺乏議價能力,那么新增財產權或增強財產權力度都不太可能解決這個問題。為解決議價能力的缺失,我們不妨從另一個角度,即通過直接參與的方式或許能解決這個問題。凱瑟琳·菲斯克(Catherine Fisk)認為鼓勵作者參與集體議價可能是最有效的辦法,即便議價的代價是版權的喪失。115See Catherine Fisk,“Hollywood Writers and the Gig Economy”(2018)2017 University of Chicago Legal Forum 177.我可以想象要求目前沒有直接向作者支付許可費的集體管理實體直接去支付的情形。116See,e.g.,Future of Music Coalition,Principles for Artist Compensation in New Business Models,2 April 2009,at https://www.futureofmusic.org/article/article/principles-artist-compensation-new-business-models.一些學者認為,通過互聯(lián)網(wǎng)自行出版可能允許作者直接與中間商競爭,并從他們的作品中獲得更多的收益。117See e.g.,Jon M.Garon,“Digital Hollywood 2.0:Reimagining Film,Music,Television and Publishing Distribution as a Global Artist Collaborative”(2013)21 Mich.St.Int,l Law Review 563;O,Rourke,“Bargaining in the Shadow”,p.638.我的同事杰里米·皮德斯(Jeremy Peters)建議,我們可以通過鼓勵或要求版權人采用公認的會計準則以及強制性的公開年度審計來獲得更多收益。本文對標簽規(guī)則(labelling rules)的效果持懷疑態(tài)度,該規(guī)則要求作品復制件或作品訪問權限提供者公開采購價格中直接支付給作者的比例。118Cf.Rebecca Giblin,The Author Made 3p from the Sale of this Book,The Author,s Interest Blog,3 April 2018,at https://authorsinterest.org/2018/04/03/more-on-fair-trade-for-authors/.但是,通過設立與資助由政府建立或非營利性機構來教育和支持作者,讓他們理解并且強化他們的權利來對抗那些受讓他們版權的企業(yè),或許是個好辦法。119E.g.,O,Rourke,“Bargaining in the Shadow”,pp.637-38.See generally Bowker,Self-Publishing in the United States 2010-15 (2015),at http://media.bowker.com/documents/bowker-selfpublishing-report2015.pdf;Robert Shapiro &Siddartha Aneja,Unlocking the Gates:America,s New Creative Economy(2018),at http://www.recreatecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ReCreate-Creative-Economy-Study-Report.pdf.
上述這些方法都不是來自版權學者通常所采用的方法。盡管如此,但是從不熟悉的有利點去探索版權制度還是有價值的。不出意外,它能幫助我們看到我們往往忽略的事情以及分析我們忽視它們的原因。