田沛,張光明,南志標
(1.草地農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)國家重點實驗室,蘭州大學草地農(nóng)業(yè)科技學院, 甘肅 蘭州 730020;2.廣東粵明電力工程有限公司,廣東 珠海 519000 )
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禾草內(nèi)生真菌研究及應(yīng)用進展
田沛1*,張光明2,南志標1
(1.草地農(nóng)業(yè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)國家重點實驗室,蘭州大學草地農(nóng)業(yè)科技學院, 甘肅 蘭州 730020;2.廣東粵明電力工程有限公司,廣東 珠海 519000 )
內(nèi)生真菌感染大部分禾草形成互惠共生體,提高共生體對環(huán)境適應(yīng)性,并進而對動物、微生物以及整個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生廣泛的影響,使該領(lǐng)域成為近年來研究的熱點問題。分子生物學技術(shù)、基因組學、蛋白組學和代謝組學以及相應(yīng)的信息生物學技術(shù)的應(yīng)用加快了禾草內(nèi)生真菌的研究,尤其是內(nèi)生真菌全基因組序列的測定,明確了次生代謝物多樣性及其與基因的關(guān)系,鑒定相關(guān)的功能基因和蛋白,基因敲除技術(shù)闡釋了維持內(nèi)生真菌與寄主動態(tài)平衡的分子機制。利用基因組學等技術(shù)篩選對家畜無毒的內(nèi)生真菌菌株, 通過接種技術(shù)建立新的既具有抗逆性,又對家畜無毒的禾草-內(nèi)生真菌共生體,提高禾草的品質(zhì)并確保對動物的安全性,在牧草及草坪草育種上獲得了巨大成功。但是內(nèi)生真菌的寄主特異性限制了內(nèi)生真菌可利用的范圍,因此后續(xù)應(yīng)繼續(xù)利用基因組學和代謝組學新技術(shù)深入研究內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用的機制,利用基因工程技術(shù)人工創(chuàng)造無毒菌株,克服共生體創(chuàng)制的瓶頸。本研究旨在對以上內(nèi)容進行綜述,以期為更廣泛利用內(nèi)生真菌進行牧草和草坪草育種奠定基礎(chǔ)。
內(nèi)生真菌;食物鏈;生態(tài)系統(tǒng);微生物;基因組;牧草育種
禾草內(nèi)生真菌指在禾草體內(nèi)渡過全部或大部分生活周期,而禾草本身不顯示任何外部癥狀的一大類真菌[1]。廣泛研究的內(nèi)生真菌主要是子囊菌門(Ascomycota)麥角科(Clavicipitaceae)的有性世代Epichloё和其所對應(yīng)無性世代Neotyphodium屬內(nèi)生真菌。自1898年,從毒麥(Loliumtemulentum)種子內(nèi)分離出第一株內(nèi)生真菌至今,對內(nèi)生真菌的研究經(jīng)歷了由淺入深的過程,尤其是在20世紀70年代以后,Bacon等[2]揭示了高羊茅(Festucaarundinacea)內(nèi)生真菌與牛的狐茅中毒癥(fescue toxicosis)的密切關(guān)系,隨后Fletcher等[3]發(fā)現(xiàn)了多年生黑麥草(Loliumperenne)內(nèi)生真菌與新西蘭綿羊黑麥草蹣跚病(ryegrass staggers)的關(guān)系,禾草內(nèi)生真菌的研究得到了突飛猛進的發(fā)展,對其分類、分布、生理、生態(tài)、代謝、遺傳以及與寄主植物的相互作用等方面開展了大量的研究工作[4-6]。最近,Leuchtmann 等[7]根據(jù)內(nèi)生真菌的基因序列和形態(tài)特征,依據(jù) “一種真菌一個名稱”的原則,將已發(fā)表鑒定的18種有性世代(Epichloё)和25種無性世代(Neotyphodium)內(nèi)生真菌均劃分為Epichloё 屬內(nèi)生真菌,原本Neotyphodium屬認為暫時沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)其有性世代,也被冠以Epichloё屬。近年來,隨著分子生物學、基因組學、代謝組學、生物信息學的快速發(fā)展以及在植物和真菌學領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的廣泛應(yīng)用,內(nèi)生真菌的研究方向主要集中在內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用的分子機制以及利用內(nèi)生真菌進行牧草和草坪草育種等方面,本研究擬對近年來這方面的進展進行綜述。
大量以高羊茅-Epichloёcoenophiala和多年生黑麥草-Epichloёfestucaevar.lolii共生體為代表的研究形成了Epichloё屬內(nèi)生真菌與禾草形成互惠共生體,提高共生體對環(huán)境適應(yīng)性的結(jié)論[8-9]。已證實內(nèi)生真菌可以提高寄主的生長以及對食草動物[10-15]、昆蟲[8,16]、線蟲[16-17]、病原真菌、細菌[18-23]和競爭性植物[14,16,24]等生物脅迫的抗性和對干旱[20,24-25]、營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)缺乏[25]和化學他感作用[26]等非生物脅迫的抗性。有關(guān)內(nèi)生真菌對寄主的影響以及機理已有多篇文章和綜述發(fā)表[1,4-5,27-30],筆者在這里不做贅述。隨著對內(nèi)生真菌資源調(diào)查的深入,發(fā)現(xiàn)大量新的禾草-內(nèi)生真菌共生體[7,31-35],內(nèi)生真菌與寄主植物共生關(guān)系表現(xiàn)出明顯的不確定性,有證據(jù)表明Epichloё 屬內(nèi)生真菌并不能提高某些寄主尤其是野生禾草的適應(yīng)性,比如內(nèi)生真菌并沒有提高寄主亞利桑那羊茅(Festucaarizonica)的生物量[15]、競爭力[36]和降低動物的采食[37]。這些不同的結(jié)果可能是由于高羊茅和多年生黑麥草等栽培牧草經(jīng)長期馴化,遺傳多樣性遠遠低于野生禾草,內(nèi)生真菌與寄主長期共生并協(xié)同進化,在演化過程中向更有利于寄主的方向進化。而新的內(nèi)生真菌共生體,寄主植物遺傳多樣性高,其遺傳背景足以影響植物的生長并超越內(nèi)生真菌的作用,同時由于真菌繁殖模式、傳播方式和環(huán)境的不同造成了不同的選擇壓力,使共生關(guān)系復雜化,因而對寄主造成了不同的影響[15,38-39],降低了在栽培牧草上得出結(jié)論的可靠性。內(nèi)生真菌的傳播方式也顯著影響其對寄主的作用。水平傳播的有性階段內(nèi)生真菌能在宿主生殖枝上產(chǎn)生子座,抑制宿主的開花和結(jié)實,對宿主的有益影響可能小于嚴格傳播的無性階段內(nèi)生真菌[40]。有可能在自然群落中,內(nèi)生真菌與寄主形成穩(wěn)定的關(guān)系,但在溫室或試驗田中開展的試驗改變了共生體的生存環(huán)境,因而進一步改變內(nèi)生真菌與寄主的關(guān)系。這些都是在研究內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用時需要關(guān)注和思考的問題。
高羊茅內(nèi)生真菌引起的狐茅中毒癥和多年生黑麥草內(nèi)生真菌引起的黑麥草蹣跚病給畜牧業(yè)造成了巨大的經(jīng)濟損失[41-42],內(nèi)生真菌對動物尤其是家畜的影響已經(jīng)開展了大量研究。已經(jīng)明確內(nèi)生真菌與禾草共生時,能產(chǎn)生多種次生代謝物,其中以吲哚雙萜類(indolditerpene,以lolitrem B為代表),吡咯并吡嗪類(pyrrolopyrazine,以peramine為代表),麥角堿類(ergot,以ergovaline為代表)和飽和吡咯化合物(pyrrolizidine,以loline為代表)這四大類為代表[43]。除peramine以外的其余3類生物堿均對哺乳動物有毒,其中毒性最強的是lolitrem B和ergovaline,分別是引致狐茅中毒癥和黑麥草蹣跚病的主要原因[10-12,44]。后又陸續(xù)發(fā)現(xiàn)禾草內(nèi)生真菌共生體對多種家畜如家兔[45],鹿[46],駱駝[47],羊駝[48],山羊[49],馬[41],驢[50]等的毒性。自黑麥草蹣跚癥與內(nèi)生真菌的關(guān)系確立不久,Prestidge等[51]發(fā)現(xiàn)內(nèi)生真菌能提高多年生黑麥草對阿根廷莖象甲(Listronotusbonariensis)的抗性,這種保護作用是因為內(nèi)生真菌產(chǎn)生對昆蟲有強烈毒性的生物堿peramine和loline[52-53],這些生物堿可直接導致昆蟲神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)紊亂而死亡,或者在體內(nèi)累積,影響對食物的消化利用,延緩生長發(fā)育,降低存活率。據(jù)不完全統(tǒng)計,內(nèi)生真菌可對鞘翅目(Coleoptera),鱗翅目(Lepidoptera),異翅目(Heteroptera),同翅目(Homoptera),直翅目(Orthoptera),蜱螨目(Acarina)等目昆蟲產(chǎn)生抗性[1,29,44,54]。近年來,逐漸發(fā)現(xiàn)一些新的生物堿,比如黑麥草內(nèi)生真菌菌株AR37產(chǎn)生janthitrems[55],雖然尚未深入了解,但發(fā)現(xiàn)其可以提高寄主抗蟲性[56],已經(jīng)在育種中得到了重視。
共生體對動物的毒性是由內(nèi)生真菌產(chǎn)生的次生代謝物引起的,這些次生代謝物可在采食者體內(nèi)累積,幫助其防御捕食者,進而對上一級營養(yǎng)層甚至生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中多級營養(yǎng)層產(chǎn)生影響。比如內(nèi)生真菌降低了寄主上蚜蟲(Rhopalosiphumpadi)的密度,共生體產(chǎn)生的生物堿在蚜蟲體內(nèi)累積[57],經(jīng)蚜蟲食物鏈傳遞進而降低了蚜蟲的寄生性天敵-寄生蜂和捕食性天敵-瓢蟲的密度,并降低這些天敵的產(chǎn)卵量和生存率,延長發(fā)育期,其幼蟲和成蟲適應(yīng)度顯著降低,后代總數(shù)顯著降低,這種級聯(lián)作用能長期影響蚜蟲天敵的種群動態(tài)[58]。同時也發(fā)現(xiàn)內(nèi)生真菌對食物鏈的影響還包括蚜蟲的采食促使內(nèi)生真菌影響寄主分泌的揮發(fā)性有機物,這些有機物可降低其他昆蟲的采食[59]。除了對蚜蟲及食物鏈的應(yīng)用,內(nèi)生真菌也降低了阿根廷莖象甲和粘蟲(Spodopterafrugiperda)的寄生蜂(Microctonushyperodae)的生長和存活率[60-61]。同時也發(fā)現(xiàn)采食被內(nèi)生真菌感染(E+)植株的昆蟲對線蟲及其寄生細菌具有更強的抵抗力。比如多年生黑麥草和高羊茅E+植株上的小地虎(Agrostisipsilon)不易受到昆蟲病原線蟲(Steinernemacarpocapse)的感染[54,62]。這些例子說明禾草-內(nèi)生真菌共生體與食草動物關(guān)系非常復雜,內(nèi)生真菌的存在改變食草動物的取食行為,影響到植食性昆蟲物種多樣性和種群結(jié)構(gòu),對采食者的捕食性和寄生性天敵種類和數(shù)量產(chǎn)生影響,影響捕食者的捕食、結(jié)網(wǎng)(或寄生)和繁殖能力,從而影響食物鏈的能量流動和食物網(wǎng)結(jié)構(gòu),對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生不可低估的作用。在田間條件下,這種作用受到環(huán)境及共生體的基因型、生物量等各種因素影響,生物堿對食物鏈的影響可能會弱化。值得一提的是,雖有研究表明吲哚雙萜類化合物lolitrem B和janthitrem在牛和羊的脂肪和牛奶中微量殘留[63-64],但并不會對人類健康造成威脅[64-65]。
在自然界中,植物同時與多種微生物類群共生,內(nèi)生真菌對共生體-其他微生物的相互作用也產(chǎn)生顯著影響。研究較多的是對共生體與地上部分病原真菌和細菌以及地下部分菌根真菌和土壤微生物群落的相互作用的影響。
通過離體培養(yǎng)平板對峙、離體葉片和活體植株接種以及田間發(fā)病率調(diào)查等方法已發(fā)現(xiàn)禾草內(nèi)生真菌對多種病原真菌及其引起的植物病害產(chǎn)生影響[27,66]。內(nèi)生真菌通過抵抗病原菌的侵入、抑制病原菌的生長、抑制孢子的萌發(fā)、抑制病斑的擴展和阻止傳毒介體昆蟲等機制提高寄主對22種牧草和草坪草病害的抗性[1,27]。但是由于植物抗病本身就是一個非常復雜的過程,受病原物種,寄主基因型,環(huán)境條件如植物營養(yǎng)供應(yīng)(尤其是氮的供應(yīng))、溫度、土壤濕度和水分條件和其他生物之間綜合作用的影響[24,67],尤其田間條件下,內(nèi)生真菌對寄主的抗病性影響出現(xiàn)不太一致,相對于內(nèi)生真菌其他方面的研究,此方面研究涉及不多并較難得到一致的結(jié)論。
內(nèi)生真菌能提高寄主對一些植物病毒,如黑麥草花葉病毒和大麥黃矮病毒的抗性[68-69]。但是對感染大多數(shù)真菌類群且不產(chǎn)生明顯表現(xiàn)的真菌病毒關(guān)注較少。Marquez等[70]在Science雜志上報道了真菌Curvularia耐熱病毒決定了內(nèi)生真菌(Cryphonectriaprotuberata)與熱帶稗草(Dichantheliumlanuginosum)形成共生體的耐熱性,只有被病毒感染的內(nèi)生真菌才能提高寄主植物的耐熱性,反之則不能。這就揭示了真菌病毒能夠調(diào)整植物與內(nèi)生真菌形成的共生體系,因而部分學者開始關(guān)注Epichloё屬內(nèi)生真菌與真菌病毒之間的關(guān)系。從草地羊茅(Festucarubra)分離的內(nèi)生真菌E.festucae大部分被雙鏈RNA病毒或者裸露RNA病毒感染,這些病毒對真菌的表現(xiàn)無明顯影響,對共生體的影響也未知[71-72]。以后對內(nèi)生真菌的研究應(yīng)關(guān)注這方面的問題。
菌根真菌與植物根系建立互惠共生關(guān)系,增加宿主植物對土壤中營養(yǎng)元素特別是氮、磷的吸收,促進水分吸收和利用,碳水化合物代謝和提高光合速率等[73-74]。而Epichloё內(nèi)生真菌與植物地上組織建立互惠共生關(guān)系。已開展了大量研究闡明單一共生真菌與寄主植物的相互關(guān)系,而菌根真菌和內(nèi)生真菌雙重感染時對寄主植物影響由于三者之間的互作受土壤營養(yǎng)水平、共生真菌的基因型以及不同的草地管理方式(單作或者混作,施肥,灌溉等)等多種因素的影響,尚不能得出統(tǒng)一的結(jié)論。有研究表明內(nèi)生真菌與菌根真菌存在拮抗作用,內(nèi)生真菌降低菌根真菌的侵染和擴展[18-19,75],但是在某些情況下促進菌根真菌的侵染[76]。比如內(nèi)生真菌提高一種AM真菌對其寄主披堿草(Elymushystrix)的侵染,卻抑制了另外一種AM真菌的侵染[77];同時也發(fā)現(xiàn),AM真菌共寄生提高多年生黑麥草-E.festucaevar.lolii共生體的冠根比,卻降低了多年生黑麥草-E.typhina共生體的冠根比[75],這些研究都強調(diào)了基因型的強烈影響。雖然二者單獨寄生時均形成互惠共生體,有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)二者共同作用時,降低寄主生物堿含量和抗蟲性[78-79],因此,如何同時利用這兩種真菌以形成超級共生體對寄主提供全方面的保護,還需要更多深入的研究。
內(nèi)生真菌除了影響與寄主共生的微生物,還能夠改變土壤的營養(yǎng)元素水平,影響土壤微生物群落結(jié)構(gòu)和功能[80]。初步證明了內(nèi)生真菌直接影響根部生物量、形態(tài)和分泌物從而影響根部食物鏈和營養(yǎng)循環(huán),增加輸入到土壤中的有機營養(yǎng),提高根際營養(yǎng)循環(huán)和土壤微生物活性,影響土壤微生物群落的代謝多樣性[81-84];并可通過對共生體地上部分比如生物量,種群結(jié)構(gòu),周圍微環(huán)境的綜合作用和家畜采食間接影響地下部分。共生體產(chǎn)生生物堿或者其他化感作用物質(zhì)可滲入到土壤中對土壤微生物和動物群落產(chǎn)生影響。但是也有不同的結(jié)果,有研究表明禾草內(nèi)生真菌降低土壤微生物量和土壤呼吸作用,抑制土壤微生物活性,對土壤微生物群落的穩(wěn)定性存在一定的副作用[85-86]。
上述內(nèi)生真菌與寄主、草食動物和微生物的研究屬于個體或種群水平的研究,隨著內(nèi)生真菌研究的深入,其已拓寬到內(nèi)生真菌與寄主所在的整個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的影響。通過上述提到的直接或間接影響,內(nèi)生真菌在生物群落和整個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮重要作用[87]。比如內(nèi)生真菌能提高寄主對環(huán)境的適應(yīng)性,使具有較強抗逆性的帶菌禾草能迅速占據(jù)生態(tài)位,提高其在群落中的競爭力,降低周圍群落雜草的多樣性,影響了植物群落和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的多樣性[88]。而生物堿等次生代謝物對草食動物及食物鏈的影響,改變自然群落中競爭和捕食關(guān)系,進而改變?nèi)郝渲袆游锏亩鄻有訹87],比如內(nèi)生真菌導致高羊茅草地中小型哺乳動物、節(jié)肢動物多樣性的降低[89-90],也有共生體為其他草類植物和節(jié)肢動物提供了庇護,從而保護生物多樣性的報道[91]。內(nèi)生真菌對寄主地下部分的影響包括對根際和土壤微生物兩方面的作用,改變根系分泌物和根際代謝物[92],影響土壤真菌和細菌群落[93],進而影響地下部分生態(tài)系統(tǒng)營養(yǎng)循環(huán);內(nèi)生真菌對地上部分生物量及營養(yǎng)品質(zhì)的影響,會進一步影響寄主枯葉的質(zhì)量和降解速率,影響土壤碳釋放和溫室氣體的排放,這些作用反過來影響地上和地下部分群落結(jié)構(gòu)[94](圖1)。由此可以看出內(nèi)生真菌雖然作為微生物在寄主體內(nèi)生存,但是對草原植物群落多樣性、穩(wěn)定性和草原生態(tài)系統(tǒng)均有非常重要的影響,微生物已經(jīng)成為影響生態(tài)系統(tǒng)不可忽略的因素。雖然內(nèi)生真菌對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的研究相對較少,但卻已取得了具有國際影響力的成果, Clay等[14]表明雖然內(nèi)生真菌沒有提高高羊茅地上部分的生物量,但卻提高了寄主在群落中的優(yōu)勢地位,降低物種多樣性,導致群落結(jié)構(gòu)的改變。Omacini等[58]通過對內(nèi)生真菌-蚜蟲食物鏈的研究表明內(nèi)生真菌干擾能量從植物向更高級營養(yǎng)水平的傳遞,從而影響生物鏈的能量傳遞,進而改變生物群落的多樣性。這些成果分別在頂級學術(shù)期刊Science和Nature上發(fā)表,從而使內(nèi)生真菌對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的重要性在國際范圍內(nèi)引起關(guān)注。
隨著分子生物學技術(shù)、基因組學、蛋白組學和代謝組學以及相應(yīng)的生物信息學技術(shù)的迅速發(fā)展和日益成熟,內(nèi)生真菌的研究也得到了空前的發(fā)展[4-6,96-97],相對于上述提到的幾個方面,基因組學得到最多的關(guān)注和迅速的發(fā)展,開展了內(nèi)生真菌及其寄主植物的全基因組序列測定,明確次生代謝物多樣性及其與基因的關(guān)系,并鑒定相關(guān)的功能基因和蛋白。代表性工作有美國肯塔基大學Schardl實驗室圍繞生物堿合成的比較基因組學研究,現(xiàn)已完成26株麥角菌其中包括20個不同的Epichloё內(nèi)生真菌的全基因組測序,其序列在http://www.endophyte.uky.edu/上公布,有助于全球科學家共同開展基因圖譜構(gòu)建等工作[6]。另外,澳大利亞維多利亞農(nóng)業(yè)生物研究中心(AgriBio, Victoria)Spangenberg實驗室也完成了16株羊茅屬內(nèi)生真菌和19株黑麥草屬內(nèi)生真菌的全基因組測序[98-99]。這些全基因組序列的獲得為研究內(nèi)生真菌的系統(tǒng)進化,深入分析生物堿合成相關(guān)基因,尋找真菌與寄主相互作用的基因奠定了重要的基礎(chǔ)。比如以前廣泛利用DNA分子標記技術(shù)如SSR等[100-101]和特定DNA片段如tubB、tefA 序列對內(nèi)生真菌進行遺傳多樣性、系統(tǒng)發(fā)育、起源和進化研究[7,102]。但這些基因片段往往小于整個基因組的千分之一,數(shù)據(jù)不足以反映整個基因組的特點。而全基因組序列的獲得,可以用更多的長片段基因比如線粒體基因進行真菌系統(tǒng)發(fā)育的研究,更清楚地闡明基因的結(jié)構(gòu)變異、拷貝數(shù)目、堿基缺失等與真菌生態(tài)功能的關(guān)系,加速分子標記的開發(fā),更準確地追溯真菌起源,對以前分類模糊的種進行精確的定性[34,98-99]。內(nèi)生真菌產(chǎn)生的四大類生物堿的合成途徑及調(diào)控基因已通過基因克隆和基因沉默等技術(shù)闡明[88,103-105],可根據(jù)生物堿合成途徑基因出現(xiàn)與否推斷內(nèi)生真菌的產(chǎn)堿類型[97,106-108]。而全基因組序列的獲得能克服基因克隆的片面性和AT富集區(qū)干擾片段的出現(xiàn)等問題,精確分析具有不同生活史和生態(tài)功能的生物堿合成相關(guān)基因的結(jié)構(gòu)變化,轉(zhuǎn)座子、微型反向重復轉(zhuǎn)座元件、端粒以及基因內(nèi)部堿基缺失對基因功能的影響,并發(fā)現(xiàn)了一些新的與生物堿合成相關(guān)的基因,闡明基因與內(nèi)生真菌次生代謝物多樣性的關(guān)系[5-6,109]。
圖1 內(nèi)生真菌對地上和地下生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的影響[4,95]Fig.1 The influence of endophytes on ecosystem of both above and belowground[4,95]
內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用非常復雜,其相互作用機制仍不清楚。研究者曾試圖分析內(nèi)生真菌及寄主的轉(zhuǎn)錄組以闡明內(nèi)生真菌如何調(diào)控寄主。比如利用基因芯片技術(shù)分析了固體和液體培養(yǎng)基中黑麥草內(nèi)生真菌[110]以及E+和E-高羊茅植株的差異表達基因[111];利用抑制消減雜交方法尋找寄主體內(nèi)受內(nèi)生真菌影響的基因[112]。但是這些技術(shù)需要已知基因序列,并且受探針數(shù)量的限制,不能覆蓋全部基因組。而高通量轉(zhuǎn)錄組測序技術(shù)無需全基因組信息,直接對mRNA反轉(zhuǎn)錄生成的cDNA進行測序,根據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)錄組差異表達基因?qū)ふ覂?nèi)生真菌調(diào)控基因。尤其是內(nèi)生真菌全基因譜圖的構(gòu)建,可快速闡明內(nèi)生真菌轉(zhuǎn)錄組差異表達基因的功能,以期解釋這些基因如何在寄主中發(fā)揮調(diào)控作用。比較E+和E-植株轉(zhuǎn)錄組的差異揭示了內(nèi)生真菌通過改變寄主的代謝產(chǎn)物以調(diào)控內(nèi)生真菌與寄主之間的信號和化學物質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)導,提高寄主的生長和競爭能力[113-115];而通過比較某些基因缺失菌株和野生型菌株對寄主轉(zhuǎn)錄組的影響,發(fā)現(xiàn)突變菌株的水解酶類、轉(zhuǎn)運蛋白和代謝物的基因表達顯著上調(diào),對寄主表現(xiàn)顯著的致病作用,寄主植物抗病,轉(zhuǎn)座子活性、激素合成及應(yīng)答的基因表達上調(diào),由互惠共生關(guān)系轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹虏£P(guān)系[114]。同樣的,分析不同逆境條件下共生體轉(zhuǎn)錄組表達差異,也發(fā)現(xiàn)了多種基因簇參與調(diào)控寄主體內(nèi)代謝途徑的改變,從而引起抗逆性的變化[115]。由于高通量測序信息量較大,受內(nèi)生真菌調(diào)控影響的基因數(shù)目較多,經(jīng)常有數(shù)百個在植物生理生化過程中起作用的功能蛋白及化合物的基因受到調(diào)控,通過基因功能分析可以推斷內(nèi)生真菌與寄主之間的物質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)導,但是闡明這些基因間的關(guān)聯(lián)以及如何受到信號調(diào)控還是現(xiàn)在的難點,隨著生物信息的發(fā)展,網(wǎng)絡(luò)譜圖構(gòu)建加快,相信很快會克服這些困難,闡明內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用的分子機制。
而以前基于基因敲除技術(shù)開展的單個目標基因的研究,也已獲得了突破性的成果,闡釋了維持內(nèi)生真菌與寄主動態(tài)平衡的分子機制。首先發(fā)現(xiàn)內(nèi)生真菌產(chǎn)生活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)以阻止寄主的保護反應(yīng),NADPH氧化復合體調(diào)控胞間合成活性氧ROS,Nox復合體任何基因(NoxA,NoxR,RacA和BemA)缺失或突變都會導致寄主感病和矮化,菌絲無序生長,喪失互惠共生關(guān)系[116-119]。MAP激酶也調(diào)控Nox復合體的活性,編碼該酶的SakA基因的缺失也會導致互惠共生關(guān)系破壞,寄主矮化和早熟[113]。另外也發(fā)現(xiàn)菌絲融合相關(guān)基因soft(so)和轉(zhuǎn)錄因子proA基因?qū)S持內(nèi)生真菌與寄主互惠共生關(guān)系的重要作用[102,120]。進行鐵離子吸收和貯存的嗜鐵蛋白-胞外嗜鐵素A對維系內(nèi)生真菌與多年生黑麥草互惠共生也是必需的。內(nèi)生真菌利用鐵通透酶介導的還原性鐵吸收系統(tǒng)或直接通過嗜鐵蛋白進行鐵離子吸收[5,121]。非核糖體多肽合成酶是合成嗜鐵蛋白的關(guān)鍵酶,其相關(guān)調(diào)控基因sidN的缺失,抑制內(nèi)生真菌分泌鐵載體,從而改變了共生鐵離子的動態(tài)平衡,最終導致其互惠性向拮抗性轉(zhuǎn)換[5]。這些機制的研究有助于闡明植物與真菌之間信號轉(zhuǎn)導,物質(zhì)交流過程,從而解決利用新內(nèi)生真菌創(chuàng)制共生體時出現(xiàn)的不融合性,克服共生體創(chuàng)制的瓶頸。
隨著蛋白組學和代謝組學的發(fā)展,尤其是色譜-質(zhì)譜連用,核磁共振等技術(shù)的應(yīng)用,可以對共生體次生代謝物進行更加細致深入的分析,對未知化合物定性也變得更加容易。結(jié)合蛋白組及代謝組的比較分析技術(shù),同時分析共生體整體代謝物的變化,闡述多種代謝產(chǎn)物和代謝途徑的動態(tài)變化過程,有助于闡明轉(zhuǎn)錄組分析識別的重要基因,闡明基因的功能以及基因組之間的相互作用。此類研究剛剛起步,但是已發(fā)現(xiàn)內(nèi)生真菌感染能降低共生體中含氮化合物、氨基酸和鎂含量,提高可溶性碳水化合物、脂類和一些有機酸的含量[122];提高寄主的葡萄糖、果糖、海藻糖、糖醇、脯氨酸和谷氨酸含量以及內(nèi)生真菌次生代謝物甘露醇和生物堿loline含量以提高寄主抗旱性[123];提高與糖酵解、三羧酸循環(huán)和氨基酸合成途徑的相關(guān)代謝物水平以提高寄主抗寒能力[124];全面影響寄主根系的分泌代謝物以改變植物地下部分以及土壤微生物群落[92]。結(jié)合上述提到的轉(zhuǎn)錄組學技術(shù),同時分析轉(zhuǎn)錄組基因差異和代謝產(chǎn)物差異的一致性可能會更快的揭示內(nèi)生真菌調(diào)控寄主的機制。
同時,由于技術(shù)的發(fā)展,對內(nèi)生真菌產(chǎn)生的四大類生物堿合成途徑中的化合物及前體物質(zhì)的毒性及獨特的藥理作用展開了更深入的研究。以麥角堿為例,所有前體物質(zhì)現(xiàn)都可進行定量檢測以確定各代謝產(chǎn)物的關(guān)系以及對家畜的毒性[125]。其合成途徑包含多種化合物,他們顯著抑制了依賴于Na+/K+和Mg2+離子通道的兩種ATP酶,或與D2多巴胺相結(jié)合而抑制AMP循環(huán)[126-128],從而使動物體溫升高,采食量減少,體重、催乳激素及牛奶產(chǎn)量降低[9]。通過對前體物質(zhì)進行分離純化和毒性檢測,發(fā)現(xiàn)ergoamide及衍生物主要對動物神經(jīng)產(chǎn)生影響,ergopetines主要進行血管收縮和減少催乳激素分泌,其中ergovaline 和 ergotamine具有最強的血管收縮和與D2多巴胺結(jié)合的能力,而麥角酸收縮血管能力較弱。這些不同的毒性物質(zhì)有不同的毒性動力學,與家畜體內(nèi)的藥物代謝酶作用能力也不盡相同[129]。這些研究證明了麥角堿類化合物功能非常復雜,其純品化合物可用于不同的醫(yī)療用途,而共生體代謝途徑的任何微小改變都可能引起共生體毒性及對家畜影響的變化。隨著對化合物研究的深入,在以后利用內(nèi)生真菌進行牧草育種時,不能只考慮終產(chǎn)物的影響,必須借助代謝組學篩選不含有任何有毒物質(zhì)的菌株。
除了以生物堿為代表的活性物質(zhì),內(nèi)生真菌還產(chǎn)生其他化學結(jié)構(gòu)和功能多樣的次生代謝物,De Battista等[130]很早就發(fā)現(xiàn)高羊茅內(nèi)生真菌在離體培養(yǎng)條件下能產(chǎn)生植物生長素-吲哚乙酸。隨后,自梯牧草內(nèi)生真菌E.typhina中分離出數(shù)種抗真菌活性化合物后,陸續(xù)有吲哚類化合物[131],倍半萜烯等多種抗真菌化合物被分離鑒定[132-133]。Song 等[133]還在披堿草內(nèi)生真菌中分離純化出具有類似除草劑活性化合物,對多年生黑麥草和早熟禾幼苗生長具有明顯的抑制作用。從這些研究可以看出,內(nèi)生真菌是豐富的天然產(chǎn)物資源庫,孕育著多種新型化合物,根據(jù)這些資源創(chuàng)制具有新分子骨架、新作用機制的新型殺蟲劑、殺菌劑并在生產(chǎn)上進行開發(fā)利用還任重道遠。
由于內(nèi)生真菌對家畜的毒性,曾嘗試建立不帶內(nèi)生真菌的高羊茅(美國)和黑麥草(新西蘭)草地以防治家畜中毒,但是不帶內(nèi)生真菌的牧草建植困難、生長緩慢、產(chǎn)量下降、易受蟲害危害,難以管理[1,42],在某些逆境條件下甚至不能存活[25],證明內(nèi)生真菌對寄主有極其重要的作用,建立不帶內(nèi)生真菌的草地并不可行。減少家畜病害的其他措施還包括E+牧草與三葉草(Trifoliumsp.)、苜蓿(Medicagosp.)等豆科牧草混播,與谷類混飼,制作青貯飼料等降低家畜采食的毒素[134];或者補飼藥物或添加劑;加強放牧管理比如輪牧減少家畜對生物堿含量高的莖基部采食[10,135]。但是這些措施都不能從根本解決家畜中毒問題,而對家畜無毒的內(nèi)生真菌菌株的發(fā)現(xiàn)為解決這一問題提出了新途徑。從禾草內(nèi)生真菌種質(zhì)資源中篩選出不產(chǎn)生對家畜有毒生物堿的無毒菌株,通過接種技術(shù)建立新的既具有抗逆性又對家畜無毒的禾草-內(nèi)生真菌共生體,提高禾草的品質(zhì)并確保對動物的安全性,在育種上已獲得了巨大成功[4-5,136]。表1列出了部分廣泛用于多年生黑麥草和高羊茅育種的新內(nèi)生真菌菌株。目前已有5種內(nèi)生真菌用于黑麥草育種(Endosafe、AR1、NEA2、Endo5和AR37),尤其是AR1,投放市場3年內(nèi)占據(jù)了新西蘭黑麥草種子市場的60%[137]。還有澳大利亞維多利亞農(nóng)業(yè)生物研究中心和新西蘭Agriseeds聯(lián)合發(fā)現(xiàn)了多株無毒菌株正擬投放市場[138]。高羊茅內(nèi)生真菌E.coenophiala菌株AR542只產(chǎn)生對昆蟲有毒的loline和peramine生物堿,將其接種到一些優(yōu)質(zhì)高羊茅中開發(fā)了MaxQ和 MaxP商用品種。這些共生體既不影響采食家畜的健康,又同時保持了植株的生長及抗逆優(yōu)勢,在畜牧業(yè)生產(chǎn)中取得了巨大的經(jīng)濟價值[136,139]。而進行草坪草育種時,不需要考慮內(nèi)生真菌毒素引致的家畜中毒問題,其為寄主帶來的抗逆、抗蟲、耐踐踏等特性正是草坪草業(yè)所需要的[1,67]。因此根據(jù)內(nèi)生真菌的不同表現(xiàn)可以將其利用在不同方面,比如新西蘭利用對家畜和昆蟲有毒生物堿含量極高的內(nèi)生真菌菌系A(chǔ)R95和AR601,分別接入到多年生黑麥草和高羊茅草坪草品種中,成功培育機場防鳥草Avanex品種[140]。
由于內(nèi)生真菌的寄主特異性,利用人工接種建立新的禾草-內(nèi)生真菌共生體時,會發(fā)生一些不融合反應(yīng)(incompatability),這就限制了內(nèi)生真菌可利用的范圍。其次寄主和內(nèi)生真菌的相互關(guān)系受植物和內(nèi)生真菌基因型的強烈影響[13,15]。同一內(nèi)生真菌接種到不同寄主中后其生物堿種類和含量會發(fā)生改變。有時候新的共生體產(chǎn)生的生物堿與期待并不一致,一個很明顯的例子就是Endosafe,Endosafe是只產(chǎn)生吡咯并吡嗪類化合物(peramine)卻不產(chǎn)生吲哚雙萜類化合物(lolitrem B)的E.festucaevar.lolii(N.lolii)菌株,當它接種到黑麥草中卻產(chǎn)生了麥角堿(ergovaline)[149],因此該菌株后來被AR1取代,并提醒育種者后續(xù)利用內(nèi)生真菌育種時必須開展長期嚴格評估才能投放市場[5]。研究也發(fā)現(xiàn)不產(chǎn)生動物毒素的內(nèi)生真菌對寄主的保護作用有所降低,使其在實際生產(chǎn)中的應(yīng)用有所下降[150]。比如接種了新內(nèi)生真菌的黑麥草,產(chǎn)生的吡咯并吡嗪類化合物(peramine)含量降低,因而更容易受阿根廷莖象甲的危害[147,150],這些都是利用內(nèi)生真菌育種時需要解決的問題。基于這些問題,一方面正在利用基因組學和代謝組學新技術(shù)深入研究內(nèi)生真菌與寄主相互作用的機制,從而解決利用內(nèi)生真菌創(chuàng)制共生體時出現(xiàn)的不融合性,克服共生體創(chuàng)制的瓶頸。另一方面利用基因工程技術(shù)人工創(chuàng)造無毒菌株,而生物堿合成途徑及相關(guān)調(diào)控基因的闡明也為采用生物工程方法創(chuàng)制對家畜無毒菌株奠定了基礎(chǔ)[6,102,113]。比如澳大利亞Spangenberg實驗室將菌株進行基因突變,定向篩選缺少lolitrem B合成基因的菌株,獲得了不產(chǎn)生lolitrems的內(nèi)生真菌菌株;或者利用CRISPR(Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)基因編輯技術(shù),切除有毒生物堿的基因以獲得無毒菌株;利用根癌農(nóng)桿菌誘導轉(zhuǎn)化將抗蟲peramine基因?qū)氲街划a(chǎn)生有益生物堿janthitrems的菌株中,獲得了可以同時產(chǎn)生這兩種抗蟲生物堿的菌株(Spangenberg G,個人通訊)。通過生物技術(shù)創(chuàng)制的菌株接回原始分離寄主則可以減少內(nèi)生真菌與寄主不融合性的出現(xiàn)。
表1 用于多年生黑麥草和高羊茅育種的新內(nèi)生真菌菌株
Table 1 Novel endophytes strains and their outcomes
內(nèi)生真菌Endophyticfungi菌株Strain產(chǎn)堿特性Alkaliproperty生產(chǎn)中表現(xiàn)Performanceinproduction參考文獻Reference多年生黑麥草Perennialryegrass,內(nèi)生真菌E.festucaevar.loliiAR1吡咯并吡嗪類化合物Peramine無黑麥草蹣跚癥,提高家畜體重。Noryegrassstaggers,improvelivestockbodyweight.[141]提高種子產(chǎn)量和萌發(fā)率。Improveseedsproductionandgermination.[142]無黑麥草蹣跚癥,并提高牧草產(chǎn)量和家畜奶產(chǎn)量。Noryegrassstaggers,improveforageandlivestockmilkproduction.[143]AR37Janthitrems無黑麥草蹣跚癥,提高寄主對害蟲Wiseanacervinata的抗性。Noryegrassstaggers,improvehostresistancetopest-Wiseanacervinata.[144]提高牧草產(chǎn)量和草地持久性。Improveforageproductionandgrasslandpersistence.[145]NEA2較少的吲哚雙萜類,麥角堿類和吡咯并吡嗪類化合物lowlevelsofLolitremB+Ergot+Peramine提高寄主對阿根廷莖象甲的抗性。ImprovehostresistancetoListronotusbonariensis.[146]接種到不同黑麥草品種中,生物堿含量有變化。Alkaloidscontentsvariedinoculatedintodifferenthostcultivar.[100]Endosafe麥角堿類和吡咯并吡嗪類化合物Ergot+Peramine無黑麥草蹣跚癥,提高對阿根廷莖象甲的抗性。Noryegrassstaggers,im-provehostresistancetoListronotusbonariensis.[141]Endo5麥角堿類和吡咯并吡嗪類化合物Ergot+Peramine提高寄主抗蟲性。Improvehostresistancetopest.[137]AR6麥角堿類和吡咯并吡嗪類化合物Ergot+Peramine無黑麥草蹣跚癥,提高對阿根廷莖象甲的抗性。Noryegrassstaggers,im-provehostresistancetoListronotusbonariensis.[147]AR95吲哚雙萜類,麥角堿類和吡咯并吡嗪類化合物LolitremB+Ergot+Peramine在機場草坪中,減少昆蟲和鳥的采食。Birdandwildlifedeterrentinryegrasssportfields.[140]高羊茅Tallfescue,內(nèi)生真菌E.coenophi-alaAR542,AR548吡咯并吡嗪類和飽和吡咯化合物Peramine+Lolines無狐茅中毒癥,提高牧草產(chǎn)量,草地持久性,提高家畜體重。Nofescuetoxico-sis,improveforageproduction,grasslandpersistenceandlivestockbodyweight.[139]提高寄主對蚜蟲的抗性。ImprovehostresistancetoRhopalosiphumpadi.[136]ArkPlus吡咯并吡嗪類和飽和吡咯化合物Peramine+Lolines無狐茅中毒癥,提高家畜體重。Nofescuetoxicosis,improvelivestockbodyweight.[148]AR601麥角堿類和飽和吡咯化合物Ergot+Lolines在機場草坪中,減少昆蟲和鳥的采食。Birdandwildlifedeterrentinryegrasssportfields.[140]
經(jīng)過多年的努力,內(nèi)生真菌的研究已經(jīng)獲得了顯著的成果,發(fā)現(xiàn)了越來越多的Epichloё屬內(nèi)生真菌,這將有助于整體認識和理解內(nèi)生真菌的系統(tǒng)發(fā)育過程,進行優(yōu)良禾草的選育和改良,加強對內(nèi)生真菌資源的保護。但是除了高羊茅和黑麥草內(nèi)生真菌,其余菌株還需深入研究其進化起源以及與寄主植物的關(guān)系。有關(guān)內(nèi)生真菌在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)水平對植物群落結(jié)構(gòu)、生產(chǎn)力和多樣性影響的研究還較少,為更好利用內(nèi)生真菌保護草原生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性,需要加強了解內(nèi)生真菌在植物和真菌進化過程中的作用和在天然草地群落中的作用。
由于禾本科植物內(nèi)生真菌對寄主植物品質(zhì)及抗逆性的影響,內(nèi)生真菌已經(jīng)廣泛應(yīng)用到牧草和草坪草育種中,而小麥(Triticumaestivum)、水稻(Oryzasativa)等糧食作物也屬于禾本科植物,新西蘭研究者嘗試通過人工接種,將小麥族植物中分離的內(nèi)生真菌轉(zhuǎn)接到小麥、大麥(Hordeumvulgare)等麥類作物中,但是由于寄主特異性和不融合性,尚未獲得成功,不能直接用于糧食作物中[151]。因此,應(yīng)進一步擴大內(nèi)生真菌資源調(diào)查的范圍,尤其是從冷季型草坪草擴寬到暖季型植物,以期發(fā)現(xiàn)更多可以在糧食生產(chǎn)中應(yīng)用的內(nèi)生真菌。同時,應(yīng)盡快解決內(nèi)生真菌與寄主不融合性的問題,借助基因組學和代謝組學闡明真菌與植物之間信號轉(zhuǎn)導和物質(zhì)交流過程,從而利用基因組編輯技術(shù)創(chuàng)制兼容性無毒菌株,為內(nèi)生真菌應(yīng)用到糧食作物育種,保障糧食安全奠定基礎(chǔ)。
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[1] 南志標, 李春杰. 禾草內(nèi)生真菌共生體在草地農(nóng)業(yè)系統(tǒng)中的作用. 生態(tài)學報, 2004, 24(3): 605-616.
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Advances in research on grass endophytes in agricultural systems and applications in forage breeding
TIAN Pei1*, ZHANG Guang-Ming2, NAN Zhi-Biao1
1.StateKeyLaboratoryofGrasslandAgro-ecosystems,CollegeofPastoralAgricultureScienceandTechnology,LanzhouUniversity,Lanzhou730020,China; 2.GuangdongYuemingElectricPowerEngineeringCo.Ltd,Zhuhai519000,China
TheEpichloё endophyte forms mutually beneficial associations with its hosts, which enhance their survival under abiotic and biotic stresses. Modern techniques in molecular biology, genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and bioinformatics have accelerated research on endophytes. The diversity of secondary metabolites and the genes related to their biosynthesis have been identified and the molecular mechanisms of mutualism between theEpichloё endophyte and its hosts have been clarified. These endophytes are widely utilized in agriculture as they are animal-safe grass endophytes that improve the growth and stress resistance of their hosts, leading to increased pasture persistence, sustainability, and production. Thus, severalEpichloё endophytes have been developed and commercialized. In this paper, we review recent research on the interactions between grasses and endophytes, and the effects of endophytes on livestock and on microbial and pasture ecosystems. We also discuss the selection of endophyte strains and forage breeding based on multidisciplinary research.
endophyte; trophic cascade; ecosystem; microbe; genomics; forage breeding
10.11686/cyxb2016049
http://cyxb.lzu.edu.cn
2016-01-25;改回日期:2016-03-08
國家基礎(chǔ)研究發(fā)展規(guī)劃“973”(2014CB138702),國家自然科學基金項目(31502001)和企事業(yè)單位委托科技項目[(15)0065]資助。
田沛(1979-),女,河南新鄭人,副教授,博士。 E-mail: tianp@lzu.edu.cn*通信作者Corresponding author.
田沛, 張光明, 南志標. 禾草內(nèi)生真菌研究及應(yīng)用進展. 草業(yè)學報, 2016, 25(12): 206-220.
TIAN Pei, ZHANG Guang-Ming, NAN Zhi-Biao. Advances in research on grass endophytes in agricultural systems and applications in forage breeding. Acta Prataculturae Sinica, 2016, 25(12): 206-220.