英語(yǔ)篇章話題系統(tǒng)與表達(dá)

王建國(guó) 吳碧宇

（華東理工大學(xué)，上海，200237）

1.英語(yǔ)篇章的話題系統(tǒng)

話題鏈（topic chain）的概念由 Dixon（1972）提出，由曹逢甫（Tsao 1977）引入漢語(yǔ)研究。無(wú)論組織篇章，還是理解篇章（參見(jiàn)Li 1995），話題鏈都起著重要的作用。王建國(guó)（2009）、吳碧宇和王建國(guó)（2012）以話題是個(gè)話語(yǔ)或篇章概念為前提，指出話題鏈?zhǔn)枪蚕碓掝}的系列小句；只要話題的語(yǔ)義得到延續(xù)，話題鏈就不會(huì)斷裂；篇章中，話題的語(yǔ)義不僅可全部延續(xù)，即橫向發(fā)展，同時(shí)還可部分延續(xù)，即縱向發(fā)展，在話題語(yǔ)義的全部延續(xù)和部分延續(xù)中形成句子話題鏈、超句（包括兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上句子）話題鏈和篇章話題鏈，如例1、2和3。

例1.The kidreaches into his pocket and?ipulls out a Zippo，?iholds it toward me and?ismiles.（Zippo）

例2.［Sheistarted in the bathroom.Sheiput the shaving brush，the disposable razor，the toothbrush and the dental floss in a large black bin bag.］（Fireworks）

吳碧宇和王建國(guó)（2012）指出，話題句和非話題結(jié)構(gòu)都可以作為輔助成分通過(guò)插入方式納入到話題鏈中，因而各種話題鏈類型就構(gòu)成一個(gè)話題鏈系統(tǒng)，該系統(tǒng)也就反映了篇章中各個(gè)話題以各種方式的發(fā)展，可稱之為篇章的話題系統(tǒng)（如圖1所示）:

圖1 英語(yǔ)篇章話題系統(tǒng)

例3.Paul Gricei

［Herbert Paul Gricei，universally known as Paul，was born on March 13，1913in Birmingham，England and died on August 28，1988in Berkeley CA.Griceireceived firsts in classical honours moderation（1933）and literae humaniores（1935）from Corpus Christi College，Oxford.］［［After a year teaching in a public schoolij，［heireturned to Oxford where，with a nearly five year interruption for service in the Royal Navy，he taught in various positions until 1967when he moved to the University of California－Berkeley.Heitaught there past his official 1979retirement until his death in 1988.Heiwas philosophically active until his death— holding discussions at his home，giving lectures and editing a collection of his work that was posthumously published as Studies in the Way of Words.Heiis best known for his innovative work in philosophy of language，but also made important contributions to metaphysics，ethics and to the study of Aristotle and Kant.］］［［His workikhas also been influential outside of philosophy in linguistics and artificial intelligence.［［［Although relativelylittle work was published during his lifeikl，he had a very wide influence via lectures and unpublished manuscripts.［［［［The best known of theseiklmwere the William James Lectures which he gave at Harvard in early 1967and which circulated widely in unauthorized manuscript form until they were published as part of Studies in the Way of Words.］］］］（c）［Heialso played cricket，chess and piano，each at a very high level of accomplishment.］（http:∥plato.stanford.edu／entries／grice／＃Ove）

根據(jù)該篇章話題系統(tǒng)，吳碧宇和王建國(guó)（2012）對(duì)例3分析和圖示如下:Paul Grice是篇章話題鏈的話題，Herbert Paul Grice，Grice，he與其同指。整個(gè)篇章話題鏈中又包括了兩個(gè)上位的超句話題鏈，分別由 After a year teaching in a public school和 his work引導(dǎo)。前者插入了一個(gè)以he引導(dǎo)的次超句話題鏈，后者插入了 Although relatively little work was published during his life引導(dǎo)的話題句，該話題句中的lectures and unpublished manuscripts又引出了 The best known of these引導(dǎo)的話題句。

圖2 例3篇章話題系統(tǒng)示意圖

宏觀上，文本類型、寫(xiě)作目的、讀者對(duì)象等許多因素都影響篇章的構(gòu)成，本文無(wú)法一一詳述。吳碧宇和王建國(guó)（2013）根據(jù)上述研究從話題延續(xù)的角度來(lái)探討漢語(yǔ)篇章表達(dá)中需要注意的幾個(gè)問(wèn)題，下文將探討英語(yǔ)篇章中需要注意的問(wèn)題。

2.整體規(guī)劃

話題可以在橫向上和縱向上得到延伸，話題的發(fā)展形式不但能體現(xiàn)作者的寫(xiě)作風(fēng)格和語(yǔ)言使用能力，還能體現(xiàn)作者組織內(nèi)容和深入話題的能力。但在兩個(gè)方向都存在延伸限制，即話題不可能在兩個(gè)方向無(wú)限延伸，這是因?yàn)槿说恼J(rèn)知能力受到了約束。故而，話題的延續(xù)會(huì)形成線性與層次性關(guān)系俱備的句子話題鏈、超句話題鏈和篇章話題鏈，方便受眾逐次分層級(jí)地進(jìn)行理解。同時(shí)，由于一些話題鏈中存在輔助成分，人的認(rèn)知能力必然約束輔助成分的容量，從而不至于偏離主題。由此，我們認(rèn)為，話題在延續(xù)中必須合理安排語(yǔ)句的線性排列，也必須合理安排語(yǔ)句的層級(jí)排列，構(gòu)建好話題系統(tǒng)。這兩個(gè)方向的排列是無(wú)法分開(kāi)的。你中有我，我中有你，只是各有側(cè)重。我們認(rèn)為，篇章寫(xiě)作的整體規(guī)劃分為兩個(gè)主要步驟:

（1）選定篇章話題

選定篇章話題應(yīng)該是篇章寫(xiě)作的第一步。篇章話題的選取決定了篇章的主題思想、篇章構(gòu)建的目的和功能，還決定了篇章構(gòu)建的可能格局，如篇章話題如何延續(xù)，需要什么樣的次話題、次次話題來(lái)支撐等?？蓞⒁?jiàn)例3分析。

（2）合理分布次話題，甚至層次更低的話題

所謂的次話題指管轄范圍相對(duì)較小的話題。次話題往往有兩種類型。當(dāng)話題的部分語(yǔ)義得到延續(xù)時(shí)，這些話題會(huì)引起與其構(gòu)成上義與下義、集體與個(gè)體、部分與整體、領(lǐng)屬與所屬等關(guān)系的次話題。這些次話題又引出其他話題結(jié)構(gòu)。各種不同層次話題所引導(dǎo)的話題結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)成縱向意義上的不同層次的話題句或話題鏈。這些次要話題或者層次更低的話題所引導(dǎo)的語(yǔ)句很明顯可以為主話題的各個(gè)側(cè)面進(jìn)行闡述，例如:

例4.Purposes and principlesi.The charter lists four purposes and seven principles of the United Nations.The first purposeijis to...The second purposeikis to...The thirdilis to...The fourth purposeimis to...；The first principle of the United Nationsiis that.Second，all members are expected to...Third，they agree to...Fourth，they agree not to...Fifth，members agree to...Sixth，the UN agrees to...And seventh，the UN accepts the principle of...（轉(zhuǎn)引自彭宣維2005）（前者與后者關(guān)系為集體與個(gè)體關(guān)系）

例5.Iiscream my pain out from my gut as the last shrouds of sunlight fall from the earth and darkness wraps me in her embrace.My voiceijechoes off the canyon walls，coming back to me.Iiraise my arms，spread wide，...（Hope and Comfort）（前者與后者關(guān)系為整體與部分關(guān)系）

例6.Linguisticsistudies the full range of aspects of human language.It investigates the phonetics，grammar and semantics of individual languages， ...Corpus linguisticsijlooks at language from a social perspective；Corpus linguistics deals with exchanging and sharing content.（前者與后者關(guān)系為上位與下位關(guān)系）

例7.Iilived at West Egg，the－well，the less fashionable of the two，though this is a most superficial tag to express the bizarre and not a little sinister contrast between them.My houseijwas at the very tip of the egg，only fifty yards from the Sound，and squeezed between two huge places that rented for twelve or fifteen thousand a season.（The Great Gatsby）（前者與后者關(guān)系為領(lǐng)屬與所屬關(guān)系）

另一種次話題類型是與主話題之間沒(méi)有任何語(yǔ)義關(guān)系的話題。但其與話題鏈的主話題具有橫向?qū)哟紊系闹鞔侮P(guān)系，如例8、9。

例8.Adamiswallowed.‘Yes.’...‘Mama’s necklace？’［Lollyjprompted，reaching for it.］‘Just a minute.’Adamiapproached Ivy.（轉(zhuǎn)引自彭宣維2005）

例9.Charleyiwalks along apolished corridor and finds the exit.Outside in the bright car park he locates his car and sits inside.He glances around at the visitors coming and going.［Nursesjwalk past，reminding him of butterflies.］Charley reaches for his mobile phone and taps in a number.（Hope and Comfort）

兩種類型的次話題或者層次更低的話題引導(dǎo)的語(yǔ)句主要是為主話題引導(dǎo)的語(yǔ)句做鋪墊，為主話題的延續(xù)和深入發(fā)展發(fā)揮作用。因而篇章表達(dá)時(shí)要充分發(fā)揮各種次話題的作用。但層級(jí)低的話題顯然不能過(guò)于延續(xù)，否則輔助成分過(guò)多，以致喧賓奪主。例如:

例10a.With the open－door policy，more and more foreigners come to Chinese.They come to China for the purpose of business.For example，they establish joint ventures.Other come to Chinese for traveling.Obviously learning English become more and more important，because we need to use English to communicate with them.（轉(zhuǎn)引自蔡基剛2003:580）

b.With the adoption of the open－door policy，English has become increasingly important in our life.Although many people are eager to master it，it is not easy for the Chinese. However I find some effective ways to overcome the difficulties I have in learning the foreign language.（同上）

例10a是學(xué)生以 How I Overcome MyDifficulties in Learning English為題寫(xiě)下的英語(yǔ)作文。蔡基剛（2003:58－59）指出，例10a是“說(shuō)了半天，不要說(shuō)中心思想沒(méi)有見(jiàn)到，連主題也未觸到”，并改之為10b。這話確實(shí)一語(yǔ)中的，10a顯然存在過(guò)多的輔助成分，通過(guò)改正之后，篇章話題 How I Overcome...的最重要次話題“I”才終于出現(xiàn)。

當(dāng)然，次話題和更低層次話題的分布取決于多種因素，例如，篇章話題的復(fù)雜性、文本類型的規(guī)范性、個(gè)人心理等。我們這里無(wú)法給出一個(gè)足以令人仿效的話題層次分布模型。要形成有秩序的立體世界，還有賴于篇章內(nèi)部的局部規(guī)劃。

3.局部規(guī)劃

局部規(guī)劃主要指使用正確的句子話題鏈和超句話題鏈。一個(gè)話題在其全部語(yǔ)義得到延續(xù)的過(guò)程即橫向發(fā)展中，可能出現(xiàn)不同的變體，如圖3所示。

圖3 話題橫向發(fā)展中可能出現(xiàn)的形式示意圖

例11.The UN is divided into six major groups.Each groupihas an important job to do within the UN system.Theyiare the General Assembly，Security Council，Secretariat，Economic and Social Council，International Court of Justice，and Trusteeship Council.（轉(zhuǎn)引自彭宣維2005）（Each group是they的個(gè)體指稱變體。）

例12.Mexicoifinanced the remaining balance on the loan by issuing bonds with high interest rates.The governmentistated that the shift from the United States loan to state bonds would save the Mexican government S｜100million in repayment fees per year.（同 上）（The government是Mexico的借代指稱變體）

例13.An elephant，waving her painted forehead at the morn...The elephantihad knelt，grey and isolated，like another hill...Then the beastirose in two shattering movements，and poised them ten feet above the plain.（同上）（the beast是the elephant的下義指稱變體）

例14.Maryifound herself a seat on a rock that had been rolled against the trunk of an old apple tree...The doctor’s daughterihad been to the decayed old orchard many times before.（同上）（The doctor’s daughter是Mary的角色指稱變體）

在話題延續(xù)的過(guò)程中使用何種變體是一個(gè)非常復(fù)雜的語(yǔ)用問(wèn)題。任何篇章話語(yǔ)都是為了達(dá)到一定的語(yǔ)用功能，因而無(wú)論是篇章的整體構(gòu)建，還是局部規(guī)劃都必須服從于達(dá)到預(yù)定語(yǔ)用功能的目的。如:

例15a.Ronald Reaganflew to Japan.The president is scheduled to meet with Japanese feminists.（Blakemore 1992:71）

b.Ronald Reagan flew to Japan.？？Ronald Reagan is scheduled to meet with Japanese feminists.（同上）

15a可以接受，是因?yàn)槭褂昧私巧阜Q變體，而15b沒(méi)有使用角色指稱變體，導(dǎo)致其接受性差。Blakemore（1992:71）認(rèn)為，這其中的原因是，名稱與有定描述語(yǔ)即使同指，二者所提供的語(yǔ)境信息也是有差異的。這樣，15a中的話題形式就不是簡(jiǎn)單的原形重復(fù)了，而15b卻不是這樣。

例16a是引自《新概念英語(yǔ)》第二冊(cè)的一篇短文，16b是文后要求學(xué)生改被動(dòng)態(tài)為主動(dòng)態(tài)的練習(xí)。前者通過(guò)使用clavichord來(lái)做超句話題鏈的話題，把we have...當(dāng)成是輔助成分，使得短文信息顯得重點(diǎn)突出。同時(shí)，該話題在延續(xù)過(guò)程中采用不同的形式，如采用了上義變體，為讀者理解提供了更多的語(yǔ)境信息。而后者變換話題更為頻繁，讓we做超句話題鏈的話題沒(méi)有突出信息說(shuō)明的對(duì)象，同指話題形式也單一。

例16a.We have an old musical instrument.Itiis called a clavichord.Itiwas made in Germany in 1681.Our clavichordiis kept in the living－room.Itihas belonged to our family for a long time.The instrumentiwas bought by my grandfather many years ago.Recently itiwas damaged by a visitor...（Not For Jazz）

b.Weihave an old musical instrument.Weicall it a clavichord.Someone made it Germany in 1681.Weikeep our clavichord in the living room.My grandfatherjbought the instrument many years ago.Recently a visitorkdamaged it...（同上）

再如，Kuno（1987，轉(zhuǎn)引自Saeed 1997／2000:158）從說(shuō)話人移情（speaker empathy）的角度解釋了17a接受性差，18b無(wú)法接受的原因。他指出，這兩例的說(shuō)話人是Mary的朋友，因此說(shuō)話的角度是站在Mary的立場(chǎng)上，因而話題Mary在第二個(gè)句子中不能變換。

例17a.？Maryihad quite an experience at the party she went to last night.An eight－foot－tall rowdyjharassed heri.

b.Maryihad quite an experience at the party she went to last night.Sheiwas harassed by an eight－foot－tall rowdy.

例18a.Maryihad quite an experience at the party she went to last night.Shei slapped an eight－foot－tall rowdy in the face.

b.＊Maryihad quite an experience at the party she went to last night.An eight－foot－tall rowdyjwas slapped in the face by heri.

篇章的整體構(gòu)建要達(dá)到語(yǔ)用目的，顯然還要考慮各種語(yǔ)言對(duì)各種文本類型約束的規(guī)范，也要考慮具體的語(yǔ)境，采用靈活的形式，從而獲得特殊的語(yǔ)用效果。例如，在英語(yǔ)的企業(yè)簡(jiǎn)介中會(huì)一反常態(tài)地使用名詞短語(yǔ)重復(fù)，而不是英語(yǔ)中慣用的代名詞重復(fù)，見(jiàn)例19。

例19.Midland Realtyialways strives to enhance its staff quality and maintain a high standard of service.Midland Realtyiis the first Hong Kong－based property agency to launch internet service of property information.Recently，the companyiintroduced the use of intranet which can greatly improve work efficiency.The groupialso makes use of the intranet as a channel to gather the latest market information and put it on to the internet.（轉(zhuǎn)引自王建國(guó)等2009）

再如，例20中“Eka Udo”被反復(fù)使用，就反映了男主人公思念前妻“Eka Udo”的好處以及對(duì)現(xiàn)任妻子的不滿，并預(yù)示了男主人公與現(xiàn)任妻子之間的婚姻悲劇。

例20.Eka Udoiwould never have done that.Eka Udoiwould never have allowed another man to bring her home except that man happened to be a close relative.

Eka Udoiwould have been home when he got back from work.Eka Udoiwould have had water ready for him to bath with.Eka Udoiwould have given him a hot meal.Oh Eka Udo！Why did he ever leave Eka Udo...？（Death of Kapsak）

對(duì)于英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)來(lái)說(shuō)，我們還要注意，在表達(dá)相似內(nèi)容的情況下，漢英話題鏈的同指話題形式的選擇是存在差異的。這種差異還可能是由于文化習(xí)慣差異造成的。

例21.王穎，1960年1月12日生。1982年畢業(yè)于大連外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院英語(yǔ)系語(yǔ)言文學(xué)專業(yè)，1986年至1988年在上海大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院英語(yǔ)助教班學(xué)習(xí)……。

多年來(lái)，我一直從事大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)工作。曾先后講授過(guò)精讀、寫(xiě)作和翻譯等課程；為專業(yè)研究生開(kāi)設(shè)過(guò)應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)……。

本人在各類學(xué)術(shù)刊物上先后發(fā)表高質(zhì)量論文20余篇；主編、合編、正式出版的專著、譯著、教材有30余本。（蔡基剛2003）

例22.Christopher N.Candlin is Senior Research Professor in the Department of Linguistics，Division of Linguistics and Psychology，at Macquarie University，Sydney，and is a member of the Research Centre for Language in Social Life，which he established in 1994 and directed from 1994to 1998.In addition，he was the Foundation Executive Director of the Australian Government’s National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research which he directed from 1987to 1998.（同上）

這兩份簡(jiǎn)歷存在因漢英語(yǔ)言差異所導(dǎo)致的表述差異:漢語(yǔ)多使用零形式回指，而英語(yǔ)多使用代名詞回指。在簡(jiǎn)歷這種文體文本中，還存在漢英文化差異所導(dǎo)致的現(xiàn)象:英語(yǔ)中常以第三人稱回指，漢語(yǔ)中常以第一人稱回指（蔡基剛2003:7）。

4.結(jié)語(yǔ)

本研究根據(jù)吳碧宇和王建國(guó)（2012）所做的英語(yǔ)篇章話題系統(tǒng)研究，討論了英語(yǔ)篇章表達(dá)中的幾個(gè)問(wèn)題。我們認(rèn)為，英語(yǔ)篇章表達(dá)在整體規(guī)劃上要選好篇章話題，安排好其他各個(gè)層次話題的基本布局，在局部規(guī)劃上，則需要使用符合英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言與文化規(guī)范的句子話題鏈和超句話題鏈，同時(shí)還需要注意文本類型對(duì)同指話題形式的選擇限制。

Blakemore， D. 1992. Understanding Utterances: An Introduction to Pragmatics［M］.Oxford:Blackwell.

Dixon，R.M.W.1972.The Dyirbal Language of North Queensland ［M］.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Li，H.1995.Topic Chain Structure in Chinese Conversations［D］.Minnesota:University of Minnesota.

Tsao，F(xiàn).1977.A Functional Study of Topic in Chinese:The First Step toward Discourse Analysis ［D］.Los Angeles:University of Southern California.

Kuno，S.1987.Functional Syntaxt:Anaphora，Discourse and Empathy ［M］.Chicago:Unversity of Chicago Press.

Saeed，J.1997／2000.Semantics ［M］.Beijing:Foreign Language Education and Research Press.

蔡基剛.2003.英漢寫(xiě)作修辭對(duì)比［M］.上海:復(fù)旦大學(xué)出版社.

彭宣維.2005.語(yǔ)篇主題鏈系統(tǒng)［J］.外語(yǔ)研究（4）:6－13.

王建國(guó).2009.漢語(yǔ)話題鏈系統(tǒng)［J］.澳門(mén)理工學(xué)報(bào)（4）:103－15.

王建國(guó)等.2009.當(dāng)代商務(wù)英語(yǔ)翻譯教程［M］.北京:中國(guó)對(duì)外翻譯出版公司.

吳碧宇、王建國(guó).2012.英語(yǔ)篇章的話題系統(tǒng)［J］.外語(yǔ)學(xué)刊（2）:81－84.

吳碧宇、王建國(guó).2013.漢語(yǔ)篇章話題系統(tǒng)與篇章表達(dá)［J］.對(duì)外漢語(yǔ)研究（10）:151－59.