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      低劑量輻照細(xì)胞損傷機(jī)制

      2012-01-29 17:50:07賀永明崔鳳梅
      關(guān)鍵詞:電離輻射旁觀者災(zāi)難

      賀永明 崔鳳梅

      在哺乳動(dòng)物中,低劑量輻射殺死細(xì)胞數(shù)量有限,并能迅速為新生細(xì)胞所修復(fù)而不留痕跡。輻射可致死,而亞致死傷害亦可獲得迅速而有效的修復(fù)。遺憾的是,在修復(fù)過(guò)程中,受損細(xì)胞可產(chǎn)生修復(fù)錯(cuò)誤,導(dǎo)致基因突變,產(chǎn)生某種形式的遺傳學(xué)不穩(wěn)定。遺傳學(xué)強(qiáng)不穩(wěn)定性可致正常細(xì)胞死亡或致腫瘤發(fā)生,而中等度不穩(wěn)定性可為細(xì)胞所耐受甚至遺傳給下一代。顯然,人們關(guān)注“診斷劑量”,希望理解中等劑量照射時(shí)是否以及如何增加健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。充分理解電離輻射誘導(dǎo)的分子學(xué)過(guò)程,將使臨床治療更有效而風(fēng)險(xiǎn)更小。

      過(guò)去曾認(rèn)為,輻射損傷的唯一細(xì)胞效應(yīng)與DNA損傷有關(guān),但現(xiàn)有證據(jù)表明,輻射損傷可影響特定細(xì)胞靶點(diǎn)并產(chǎn)生級(jí)鏈反應(yīng)。因此,現(xiàn)有研究已不再局限于直接DNA損傷和修復(fù),而是擴(kuò)展至間接作用,如適應(yīng)反應(yīng)、毒物興奮效應(yīng)、旁觀者效應(yīng)、遺傳學(xué)不穩(wěn)定性及遺傳易感性。這些研究提供了大量的醫(yī)學(xué)信息,為患者和從事核放射行業(yè)人員建立準(zhǔn)確輻射保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)提供了科學(xué)依據(jù)。近年來(lái),輻射效應(yīng)更是受到空間科學(xué)的驅(qū)動(dòng)而方興未艾。

      1 旁觀者效應(yīng)

      旁觀者效應(yīng)原指一種心理狀態(tài),在場(chǎng)的人越多,越是沒(méi)有人站出來(lái)救助受害者?,F(xiàn)在,放射學(xué)家使用這一術(shù)語(yǔ)描述直接受損細(xì)胞將這一損害傳播至其他未直接受損細(xì)胞的能力。這一模型假定低劑量低LET照射可能比線性非閾值模型預(yù)期的危害更大[1]。旁觀者效應(yīng)的最新定義基于下列發(fā)現(xiàn):暴露于低劑量 粒子細(xì)胞姊妹染色體交換頻率增加至30%,但真正發(fā)生有效交換的不足1%。因此,電離輻射損傷來(lái)自直接照射的觀點(diǎn)顯然站不住腳[2~5]。但DNA損傷似乎為起動(dòng)旁觀者效應(yīng)所必需,因?yàn)槿藗儼l(fā)現(xiàn),DNA修復(fù)缺失的細(xì)胞,其毒性遠(yuǎn)大于DNA正常細(xì)胞[6]。

      亦有報(bào)道顯示,以受輻照細(xì)胞的條件培養(yǎng)基培育正常細(xì)胞,可誘導(dǎo)旁觀者效應(yīng)[7]。更為有趣的是,同樣的實(shí)驗(yàn)條件下,適應(yīng)性反應(yīng)和旁觀者效應(yīng)可同時(shí)出現(xiàn)[8]。有些觀察發(fā)現(xiàn),旁觀者效應(yīng)可遺傳至下一代[9,10]。粒子可特異性產(chǎn)生旁觀者效應(yīng),并通過(guò)特異性激活因子使這一效應(yīng)擴(kuò)布開來(lái);光子特異性誘導(dǎo)適應(yīng)性反應(yīng)。旁觀者效應(yīng)的動(dòng)力學(xué)及機(jī)制,尤其是其時(shí)間和空間效應(yīng)對(duì)旁觀者信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)還不清楚。

      2 旁觀者效應(yīng)機(jī)制及途徑

      人們提出了多個(gè)機(jī)制用于解釋放射誘導(dǎo)的旁觀者效應(yīng)。受輻照細(xì)胞分泌低分子量化學(xué)因子,這些化學(xué)因子影響了未受輻照的附近細(xì)胞,從而產(chǎn)生旁觀者效應(yīng)。另有理論認(rèn)為,受輻照細(xì)胞分泌的小分子通過(guò)“縫隙連接”作用于鄰近細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生旁觀者效應(yīng)。信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)包括可溶性因子,如壽命短的氧自由基可起動(dòng)應(yīng)答及其他因子可調(diào)節(jié)縫隙連接[11],擴(kuò)布并維持這一效應(yīng)。質(zhì)膜表面細(xì)胞因子或生長(zhǎng)因子受體可將信號(hào)放大并傳導(dǎo)至核內(nèi),受輻照細(xì)胞的另一些信號(hào)可激活質(zhì)膜表面氧化酶[12],細(xì)胞終將更持久產(chǎn)生活性氧自由基?;钚匝踝杂苫蓳p傷DNA,刺激修復(fù)機(jī)制,激活特定檢測(cè)點(diǎn),使細(xì)胞暫時(shí)停留在G1期[9]。旁觀者效應(yīng)細(xì)胞表現(xiàn)為多種生物學(xué)后果,如遺傳學(xué)和表觀遺傳學(xué)改變,基因表達(dá)改變,信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)途徑的激活以及其后代所表現(xiàn)出來(lái)的遺傳效應(yīng)[13,14]。

      3 基因組不穩(wěn)定性

      電離輻射可使受照幸存細(xì)胞后代基因組不穩(wěn)定,誘導(dǎo)其后代延遲死亡或致死性突變和誘變[15~17]。這一形式的基因組不穩(wěn)定性與旁觀者效應(yīng)一樣,可由活性氧自由基觸發(fā)[18]。大量研究表明,電離輻射誘發(fā)的基因組不穩(wěn)定性與旁觀者效應(yīng)緊密相關(guān)。研究表明,輻照幸存細(xì)胞后代染色體不穩(wěn)定,可分泌可溶性因子誘導(dǎo)旁觀細(xì)胞死亡和染色體不穩(wěn)定。亦有旁觀細(xì)胞后代延遲效應(yīng)的報(bào)道,這些延遲效應(yīng)包括在體和離體的染色體不穩(wěn)定性以及后代死亡[19~23]。

      4 輻照細(xì)胞功能失活

      4.1 壞死、凋亡 已知幾個(gè)機(jī)制參與調(diào)節(jié)輻照細(xì)胞失活,有細(xì)胞周期一過(guò)性停止、細(xì)胞死亡及細(xì)胞衰老等。治療劑量的輻射可殺傷腫瘤細(xì)胞,而對(duì)正常細(xì)胞傷害小,但仍可造成嚴(yán)重組織(如大腦)損傷。放療后腫瘤部位偶可立即出現(xiàn)一大片壞死組織,放療后數(shù)周至數(shù)月內(nèi)出現(xiàn)大片壞死組織則更為常見,此即放射性壞死。細(xì)胞凋亡經(jīng)常發(fā)生。上世紀(jì)八十年代初,有人率先提出細(xì)胞凋亡是受照細(xì)胞死亡的一種重要形式[24],研究了細(xì)胞凋亡機(jī)制,并將細(xì)胞凋亡反應(yīng)與放射敏感性聯(lián)系起來(lái)[25]。Aldridge[26]新近研究表明,5 個(gè)人血細(xì)胞克隆生存率與凋亡反應(yīng)關(guān)系明確。中等劑量照射誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡率與細(xì)胞周期檢點(diǎn)功能相關(guān),恰好反映了單克隆生存反應(yīng)。高放射敏感性細(xì)胞系迅速出現(xiàn)凋亡,而不敏感細(xì)胞系則很久才出現(xiàn)細(xì)胞凋亡。這些研究表明,從DNA損傷至觸發(fā)細(xì)胞凋亡這段自身修復(fù)時(shí)間是決定放射敏感性的關(guān)鍵因素,至少造血細(xì)胞如此。相反,Kyprianou[27]研究表明,人前列腺癌細(xì)胞系Bcl-2的過(guò)度表達(dá)可顯著延緩放射誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡,并不影響細(xì)胞系的生存率。這一截然不同的結(jié)果反映了細(xì)胞凋亡在細(xì)胞死亡中的貢獻(xiàn)因細(xì)胞類型不同而異。

      DNA損傷誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡受p53基因調(diào)控[28],但并非唯一調(diào)控因素。譬如,電離輻射并不能誘導(dǎo)p53野生型MCF-7細(xì)胞凋亡。正常情況下,p53基因通過(guò)上調(diào)p21,使細(xì)胞停留在G1期而減少細(xì)胞凋亡[29],而p53基因缺失或p53基因突變可促進(jìn)細(xì)胞凋亡。此時(shí),細(xì)胞在 G2期時(shí)發(fā)生凋亡[30~32]。細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制值得深入研究。

      4.2 線粒體災(zāi)難 研究表明,許多細(xì)胞系受到電離輻射后,早期并不出現(xiàn)細(xì)胞凋亡,但在晚期可因線粒體災(zāi)難而出現(xiàn)細(xì)胞死亡。細(xì)胞兩種死亡模式功能上存在聯(lián)系,線粒體災(zāi)難可視作因持續(xù)DNA損傷及細(xì)胞周期檢點(diǎn)控制缺失所致一種caspase介導(dǎo)的細(xì)胞死亡的亞型[33]。有學(xué)者設(shè)想p53基因與線粒體災(zāi)難有關(guān)[34]。研究則表明,p53基因通過(guò)轉(zhuǎn)錄抑制機(jī)制調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞周期素B1水平[35]。研究野生型和無(wú)功能型p53鼠胚胎成纖維細(xì)胞結(jié)果表明,線粒體災(zāi)難可致細(xì)胞周期素B1水平上調(diào)。野生型和無(wú)功能型p53鼠胚胎成纖維細(xì)胞受照后可誘使細(xì)胞停留在S/G2期,但p53基因突變細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)線粒體災(zāi)難后繼而細(xì)胞周期素B1升高,野生型p53基因細(xì)胞表現(xiàn)為細(xì)胞周期素B1輕度升高,線粒體災(zāi)難出現(xiàn)頻率也低[36]。然而,這一放射誘導(dǎo)的延遲型細(xì)胞凋亡的分子機(jī)制可能相當(dāng)復(fù)雜。其他的如乳房細(xì)胞,順序過(guò)表達(dá)Fas,TRAIL(腫瘤壞死因子相關(guān)凋亡誘導(dǎo)配體)及腫瘤壞死因子-α,晚期過(guò)表達(dá)相應(yīng)配體似也參與了早期細(xì)胞凋亡和晚期線粒體災(zāi)難[37]。細(xì)胞死亡受體過(guò)表達(dá)可為照射直接誘導(dǎo),但也可以是線粒體災(zāi)難直接后果。細(xì)胞周期檢點(diǎn)受阻或有絲分裂異??芍戮€粒體災(zāi)難。其他研究表明,其他調(diào)節(jié)因素可能控制了線粒體災(zāi)難,包括細(xì)胞周期特異性激酶(如Cdk1和Aurora),細(xì)胞周期檢點(diǎn)蛋白及生存素。P53和p21wafl/cipl參與了細(xì)胞死亡配體表達(dá)[33]。這些問(wèn)題值得深入研究。

      4.3 衰老 衰老是指正常細(xì)胞經(jīng)過(guò)有限次細(xì)胞分裂后增殖停止。衰老細(xì)胞仍然具有代謝和合成能力,并表現(xiàn)出特有的形態(tài)學(xué)和生化改變,如細(xì)胞變大變扁、細(xì)胞中顆粒增加,SA-gal活性增強(qiáng)等[38,39]。經(jīng)典的細(xì)胞衰老是由于染色體兩端端粒酶及其他結(jié)構(gòu)的縮短所致[40]。衰老加速類似于經(jīng)典的細(xì)胞衰老,表現(xiàn)在形態(tài)學(xué)、生化及生物學(xué)特征方面,但無(wú)端粒酶縮短現(xiàn)象。衰老加速系正常細(xì)胞和腫瘤細(xì)胞對(duì)潛在致癌影響的一種保護(hù)性、非程序性反應(yīng)[41]。研究表明,電離損傷可模仿衰老現(xiàn)象,致正常細(xì)胞和腫瘤細(xì)胞細(xì)胞周期停止[42]。DNA損傷是細(xì)胞提前衰老的主要原因,但具體機(jī)制未明??梢钥隙ǖ氖?,電離損傷可促發(fā)癌細(xì)胞(受p21waf1/cip1誘導(dǎo))p53介導(dǎo)的多種反應(yīng)[43,44]。但研究表明,電離損傷誘導(dǎo)的人直腸癌HCT116細(xì)胞衰老(p53,p16或p21基因缺失)僅部分受抑制[45],這點(diǎn)不同于野生型HCT116細(xì)胞。因此,盡管p53和p21似乎參與了細(xì)胞衰老調(diào)節(jié),但并非細(xì)胞衰老所必需,這些研究提示其他基因可能參與了腫瘤細(xì)胞的衰老,具體基因尚未明確。可以肯定的是,衰老可影響電離損傷后自我修復(fù)能力,電離誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞衰老程度與該細(xì)胞對(duì)電離損傷敏感性有關(guān)[46]。有些研究表明,p53基因缺失可阻止細(xì)胞衰老,也可使放射治療失效[47]。目前,人類已邁入深太空,電離誘導(dǎo)衰老反應(yīng)尤其有現(xiàn)實(shí)意義,深入研究這一現(xiàn)象將有助于闡明太空慢性電離輻射如何影響宇航員組織和器官功能的。最后,闡明腫瘤衰老的基因和調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制有助于設(shè)計(jì)新的治療方案,以提高放療的效果并減少副作用。

      低劑量輻照受損細(xì)胞結(jié)局取決于能否徹底揭開低劑量輻照受損細(xì)胞分子機(jī)制。此外,許多生物學(xué)和流行病學(xué)問(wèn)題亟待解決。

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