語(yǔ)言心理表征方式的新闡釋——《心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)》評(píng)介

東北師范大學(xué)

唐革亮 楊 忠

語(yǔ)言心理表征方式的新闡釋——《心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)》評(píng)介

東北師范大學(xué)

唐革亮 楊 忠

《心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)》一書(shū)對(duì)語(yǔ)言的心理表征方式提出了大膽假設(shè)，綜合認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)理論、語(yǔ)料庫(kù)研究方法及前人的研究結(jié)果，從語(yǔ)言實(shí)際使用的多個(gè)方面論證了“心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”的現(xiàn)實(shí)性。本書(shū)主要觀點(diǎn)為：人們通過(guò)接觸語(yǔ)言使用積累經(jīng)驗(yàn)，并從經(jīng)驗(yàn)中概括出語(yǔ)言知識(shí)。語(yǔ)言知識(shí)包括一切被存儲(chǔ)在“心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”中的信息，語(yǔ)言使用是將已有資源和知識(shí)進(jìn)行整合。該書(shū)對(duì)語(yǔ)言與心理認(rèn)知研究具有重要理論貢獻(xiàn)，對(duì)語(yǔ)言教師和學(xué)習(xí)者也具有啟示作用。

語(yǔ)言知識(shí)；心理表征；語(yǔ)言接觸；語(yǔ)料庫(kù)

《心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)》是認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)家John R. Taylor教授近年的又一力作，由牛津大學(xué)出版社于2012年出版，全書(shū)共321頁(yè)。本書(shū)將語(yǔ)言的心理表征方式比作內(nèi)化在頭腦中的一個(gè)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)，“心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”一詞由此而來(lái)。作者將語(yǔ)料庫(kù)作為喻體，目的在于突出語(yǔ)言心理表征方式的規(guī)模性、豐富性、規(guī)律性和分布差異性，而這些都是生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)理論解釋的不足之處。以下是筆者對(duì)各章節(jié)主要內(nèi)容的介紹及全書(shū)觀點(diǎn)的評(píng)析。

1.內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介

本書(shū)共十三章，第一章總述了全書(shū)的思想，第二章回顧了語(yǔ)言生成模式的不足，第三章到第十二章是全書(shū)的主體部分，從多角度論證了“心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”這一假設(shè)的理?yè)?jù)，最后一章總結(jié)并重申了作者的觀點(diǎn)。

第一章 對(duì)語(yǔ)言的認(rèn)識(shí) 作者開(kāi)宗明義，闡述了“心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”這一概念的本質(zhì)。作者把累積的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)驗(yàn)和記憶比作在大腦中存儲(chǔ)的一個(gè)大型語(yǔ)料庫(kù)，語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中所記錄的各種信息均為語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的一部分。作者認(rèn)為心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)在以下三個(gè)方面區(qū)別于計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)：內(nèi)容上，心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中存儲(chǔ)的信息更加豐富，它可以超越計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)通過(guò)文字和標(biāo)記符號(hào)記錄信息的局限，包含任何語(yǔ)言經(jīng)歷所涉及的語(yǔ)境特征，如說(shuō)話人的聲音、交際意圖、情景等；形式上，心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)所記錄的信息不受文字符號(hào)線性結(jié)構(gòu)的限制，既能夠像計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)一樣反映出符號(hào)出現(xiàn)的順序，每一個(gè)符號(hào)又能像超級(jí)鏈接一樣，與其他符號(hào)通過(guò)共享的索引建立起聯(lián)系；時(shí)間動(dòng)態(tài)性(temporal dynamics)上，心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的內(nèi)容和容量是相對(duì)開(kāi)放的，新舊信息會(huì)不斷更替。

第二章 語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的生成模式：詞典加語(yǔ)法書(shū) 本章回顧和評(píng)析了生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)的語(yǔ)言觀，并指出該理論在解釋語(yǔ)言創(chuàng)造性和程式化表達(dá)方面的不足。作者認(rèn)為，喬氏理論雖然經(jīng)過(guò)了多個(gè)階段的發(fā)展和修正，但其終極目標(biāo)只有一個(gè)，那就是試圖勾勒出一個(gè)模型去解釋所有既合法又合理的表達(dá)。然而，在實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用中，合法與合理之間卻不是充分必要關(guān)系。一方面，規(guī)則的生成能力有限；另一方面，整體意義并不完全等于部分意義的總和。因此，并不是所有的語(yǔ)言表達(dá)都可以通過(guò)規(guī)則生成，而一旦不合規(guī)則的表達(dá)被廣泛運(yùn)用和接受，我們便沒(méi)有理由繼續(xù)將其視作邊緣化的特殊用法。

第三章 詞匯及其用法 詞類是生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)中一個(gè)非常重要的概念，它是短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則的前提。作者在本章中對(duì)詞類的假設(shè)提出了質(zhì)疑：1)詞庫(kù)中的所有詞項(xiàng)是否都可以被劃分到有限的詞類中？2)一個(gè)詞類中的所有成員是否都具備同樣的被運(yùn)用到規(guī)則中的能力？這兩個(gè)問(wèn)題的答案都是否定的。作者以幾個(gè)常用的名詞和動(dòng)詞為例(包括fun、much、try、beware等)，在BNC(英國(guó)國(guó)家語(yǔ)料庫(kù))和COCA(美國(guó)當(dāng)代英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)料庫(kù))中檢索并分析了它們的使用分布。大量語(yǔ)言實(shí)例表明：一個(gè)詞在具體表達(dá)中并不一定會(huì)表現(xiàn)出它所屬詞類的典型特征，其用法可能具有特殊屬性(idiosyncratic property)，不能夠完全通過(guò)詞類信息和句法規(guī)則判斷其使用。因此，要想正確習(xí)得一個(gè)詞的含義，就必須通過(guò)接觸真實(shí)的語(yǔ)言使用并記下其具體用法。

第四章 習(xí)語(yǔ) 作者反對(duì)將習(xí)語(yǔ)視為語(yǔ)言使用的邊緣現(xiàn)象，認(rèn)為它是一個(gè)語(yǔ)言體系的重要組成部分。本章詳細(xì)討論了三個(gè)層面的習(xí)語(yǔ)：語(yǔ)義習(xí)語(yǔ)具有一定的隱喻特征，其句法結(jié)構(gòu)通常合乎規(guī)則，但整體意義卻與字面意義相去甚遠(yuǎn)，如kick the bucket表示“死”的含義。句法習(xí)語(yǔ)指不符合句法規(guī)則的固定表達(dá)，其詞項(xiàng)的選擇具有特殊性，含義也具有一定的規(guī)約性，比如由形容詞比較級(jí)構(gòu)成的相關(guān)性構(gòu)式[the X-er the Y-er]等。短語(yǔ)習(xí)語(yǔ)指以短語(yǔ)形式出現(xiàn)的詞項(xiàng)組合，如英語(yǔ)中很多充當(dāng)狀語(yǔ)成分的介詞短語(yǔ)in fact、on end等，其含義不能通過(guò)成分分析得出。作者認(rèn)為習(xí)語(yǔ)在大腦中的表征包含多種信息，通過(guò)對(duì)大量語(yǔ)言使用的接觸，人們熟悉了習(xí)語(yǔ)的措辭和語(yǔ)義特征，并了解其內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和使用偏好。

第五章 習(xí)慣表達(dá) 作者認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言表達(dá)的習(xí)慣性不僅僅局限于上一章提到的三個(gè)層面，日常用語(yǔ)中很多表達(dá)都具有習(xí)慣性，這種習(xí)慣性在于是否符合母語(yǔ)者的語(yǔ)言使用規(guī)范。規(guī)范既存在于語(yǔ)言外部，即語(yǔ)言表達(dá)要與經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界相符，也存在于語(yǔ)言內(nèi)部，即語(yǔ)言符號(hào)之間的搭配。作者借助語(yǔ)料庫(kù)討論了語(yǔ)言搭配的習(xí)慣性，如形容詞foreseeable后有三分之二的搭配為future，而total failure的出現(xiàn)頻率約是total success的四倍；動(dòng)詞cause后常跟不好的事情做賓語(yǔ)等。那么諸如此類的習(xí)慣性表達(dá)是如何學(xué)得的呢？在作者看來(lái)，課堂教學(xué)只是其中的一小部分，大量的習(xí)慣表達(dá)是學(xué)習(xí)者在無(wú)意識(shí)的狀態(tài)下通過(guò)不斷地接觸語(yǔ)言使用獲得的。

第六章 構(gòu)式 作者對(duì)構(gòu)式提出了一種更加寬泛的解釋，認(rèn)為構(gòu)式與認(rèn)知語(yǔ)法強(qiáng)調(diào)的“單位”概念相似，是我們必須要特殊學(xué)習(xí)的任何可以直接使用的語(yǔ)言元素，正是這些元素構(gòu)成了我們的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)。在作者看來(lái)，語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)出不是通過(guò)運(yùn)用規(guī)則生成的，而是以構(gòu)式為基礎(chǔ)由抽象圖式(schema)轉(zhuǎn)化為具體實(shí)例(instance)的過(guò)程。作者不主張區(qū)分規(guī)則表達(dá)和不規(guī)則表達(dá)，他認(rèn)為這只是構(gòu)式的限制程度問(wèn)題，如The farmer shot a rabbit和off with his head都可視為構(gòu)式，前者體現(xiàn)的是及物構(gòu)式，后者是[off with]構(gòu)式，兩種構(gòu)式的差異在于后者對(duì)構(gòu)式中可以出現(xiàn)的詞項(xiàng)限制更多。因此，大到句子類型，小到詞匯搭配都是構(gòu)式，都需要具體去學(xué)習(xí)，且同一構(gòu)式可能存在跨語(yǔ)言差異。

第七章 頻率 語(yǔ)言使用頻率存在差異的現(xiàn)象十分普遍。生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)認(rèn)為這種差異在于語(yǔ)言符號(hào)的運(yùn)用，與語(yǔ)言能力無(wú)關(guān)。而作者則反對(duì)這一觀點(diǎn)，認(rèn)為使用頻率的差異也是說(shuō)話人語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的一部分。最好的例證便是對(duì)花園小徑句的理解，如The horse raced past the barn fell。作者認(rèn)為該句之所以在第一遍理解時(shí)會(huì)出現(xiàn)歧義，把raced理解為整個(gè)句子的謂語(yǔ)，是因?yàn)槿藗儗?duì)該詞的使用有一定預(yù)期，而這種預(yù)期的形成則基于較早的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)歷中使用頻率的差異。作者在BNC語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中檢索raced一詞，隨機(jī)選取并分析了50例該詞的句法特征，發(fā)現(xiàn)90%的例子中raced都被用作過(guò)去時(shí)態(tài)的謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞，只有5例被用為過(guò)去分詞。

第八章 語(yǔ)言的區(qū)別性特征：偏斜頻率(skewed frequency) 本章是上一章內(nèi)容的延伸，在分析了大量語(yǔ)言使用的頻率差異之后，作者試圖探究其根源。他認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言的頻率效應(yīng)是語(yǔ)言得以學(xué)習(xí)和傳承的前提和基礎(chǔ)，是人類語(yǔ)言的一個(gè)本質(zhì)特征。作者試圖從范疇成員的類典型性去解釋這一論點(diǎn)：如果一個(gè)語(yǔ)言構(gòu)式可看作一個(gè)范疇，其所使用的詞項(xiàng)便可看作是范疇成員，典型的范疇成員與非典型的成員在使用頻率上存在明顯差別。使用頻率高的詞項(xiàng)有助于學(xué)習(xí)者理解并識(shí)別構(gòu)式，而使用頻率低的詞項(xiàng)則為學(xué)習(xí)者拓展和創(chuàng)新構(gòu)式提供了可能。反過(guò)來(lái)說(shuō)，假設(shè)每種構(gòu)式的范疇成員使用頻率都相等，那么學(xué)習(xí)語(yǔ)言將成為一件不可及的事情，語(yǔ)言也不會(huì)得以傳承和延續(xù)。

第九章 從語(yǔ)言輸入中學(xué)習(xí) 作者在本章試圖論證語(yǔ)言輸入中的一切信息都是可以被注意到并存儲(chǔ)在記憶中的，而這正是語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)的前提。以語(yǔ)音習(xí)得為例，前人的研究表明，不同頻率的語(yǔ)音輸入會(huì)影響對(duì)音位的感知和判斷，對(duì)不同聲音的識(shí)別和記憶也會(huì)影響語(yǔ)音輸出。此外，語(yǔ)言的近因效應(yīng)*近因效應(yīng)可以理解為語(yǔ)言的一種順同作用，多指較早的語(yǔ)言使用會(huì)觸發(fā)(priming)其后的詞匯語(yǔ)法的選擇。如They say that sorry is the hardest word. It can also be the slipperiest. 語(yǔ)料庫(kù)檢索表明slipperiest的使用并不常見(jiàn)，人們更常用most slippery來(lái)表示其最高級(jí)，其形式的選擇受其前面hardest的影響。(recency effect)也充分說(shuō)明語(yǔ)言輸入中的信息是會(huì)被記錄并影響語(yǔ)言輸出的。作者進(jìn)而將這一現(xiàn)象與微觀學(xué)習(xí)聯(lián)系在一起，認(rèn)為正是這種機(jī)制使得已有的語(yǔ)言使用得以鞏固，并增加了其被使用的機(jī)會(huì)。作者指出，語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)是積累語(yǔ)言經(jīng)驗(yàn)的過(guò)程，在此過(guò)程中捕捉并記錄各種信息，并把其內(nèi)化成存儲(chǔ)在心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)。

第十章 一詞多義 一詞多義現(xiàn)象是語(yǔ)義學(xué)研究的熱點(diǎn)問(wèn)題，而對(duì)其本質(zhì)的認(rèn)識(shí)則各有千秋。作者既不贊同將多義現(xiàn)象看作是獨(dú)立于語(yǔ)境存在的多種離散意義，也不贊同將其視為一個(gè)語(yǔ)義內(nèi)容在不同背景下意義的延伸，而是主張把多義現(xiàn)象看作是不同語(yǔ)境下的不同使用方式，與維特根斯坦“意義即使用”的思想一致。作者認(rèn)為語(yǔ)境包括兩個(gè)維度：概念語(yǔ)境和語(yǔ)言語(yǔ)境。概念語(yǔ)境強(qiáng)調(diào)的是被詞匯激活的概念域與詞義緊密相關(guān)，即詞義的理解需要以更大的知識(shí)網(wǎng)絡(luò)為基礎(chǔ)；而語(yǔ)言語(yǔ)境則指詞匯的具體使用環(huán)境，起到激活概念域的作用。詞匯和語(yǔ)境之間的影響是相互的。一方面，詞義的判斷取決于詞在語(yǔ)境中的使用；另一方面，詞匯的使用也取決于它出現(xiàn)過(guò)的語(yǔ)境。

第十一章 創(chuàng)造和創(chuàng)新 語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)造力被認(rèn)為是人類語(yǔ)言的重要的區(qū)別性特征。作者對(duì)生成學(xué)派對(duì)語(yǔ)言創(chuàng)造力的解釋提出了質(zhì)疑。首先，短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則雖然從一定程度上說(shuō)明了語(yǔ)言的生成能力，但卻不能辯證地看待“新”和“舊”的關(guān)系，即未能對(duì)規(guī)約化語(yǔ)言的使用進(jìn)行解釋。其次，在生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)看來(lái)，運(yùn)用規(guī)則是使用語(yǔ)言的前提，所有的創(chuàng)造自然都不會(huì)超出規(guī)則的范圍，因此其理論不能解釋不規(guī)則語(yǔ)言表達(dá)的存在和使用。作者認(rèn)為這是生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)將創(chuàng)造和創(chuàng)新這兩個(gè)概念對(duì)立的原因。語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)新是指語(yǔ)言表達(dá)超出句法和詞匯規(guī)則的限制。創(chuàng)新使用是大量存在的，因此作者提出需要一種更為綜合的理論來(lái)闡釋語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)造性和創(chuàng)新性。

第十二章 整合 本章試圖回答上一章遺留的問(wèn)題，作者借用認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Fauconnier和Turner提出的概念整合理論來(lái)解釋語(yǔ)言的創(chuàng)造和創(chuàng)新能力。作者認(rèn)為新表達(dá)的產(chǎn)生是將已有的語(yǔ)言資源依據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)或語(yǔ)義的關(guān)聯(lián)進(jìn)行有意識(shí)或無(wú)意識(shí)的整合過(guò)程，整合既可以出現(xiàn)在詞匯層面，如motel；也可以出現(xiàn)在短語(yǔ)層面，如thanks very much。更為普遍的是對(duì)詞匯和構(gòu)式之間的整合，如explain me this是將動(dòng)詞explain與雙及物構(gòu)式整合的結(jié)構(gòu)。整合理論的優(yōu)勢(shì)在于它不僅可以解釋創(chuàng)新表達(dá)，也可以用來(lái)解釋規(guī)則表達(dá)，所謂的規(guī)則與不規(guī)則只不過(guò)是構(gòu)式與其組成成分相融度的問(wèn)題。

第十三章 心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù) 本章回顧并總結(jié)了全書(shū)的主要內(nèi)容和中心論點(diǎn)：第一，對(duì)語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的描寫(xiě)僅僅停留在詞典和語(yǔ)法書(shū)層面是不夠的，而是要知道某一表達(dá)具體使用的語(yǔ)境。第二，構(gòu)式在語(yǔ)言符號(hào)系統(tǒng)中是一個(gè)基本的意義/符號(hào)單位，一個(gè)構(gòu)式就是一個(gè)語(yǔ)言范疇，需要單獨(dú)學(xué)習(xí)。第三，語(yǔ)言的使用頻率存在偏斜現(xiàn)象，這是語(yǔ)言的內(nèi)部特征，也是語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的一部分。第四，人從語(yǔ)言經(jīng)歷中概括出抽象的圖式，并以此為依據(jù)產(chǎn)出語(yǔ)言，但并不局限于此，可以進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新使用。第五，語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的習(xí)得可以被看作是一個(gè)從下到上、基于語(yǔ)言使用和語(yǔ)言輸入、不斷積累和更新的過(guò)程，語(yǔ)言輸入既會(huì)影響語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)，也會(huì)影響語(yǔ)言能力。

2.簡(jiǎn)要評(píng)價(jià)

心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)這一假說(shuō)的提出離不開(kāi)兩個(gè)基本前提。第一，基于使用的語(yǔ)言觀。不主張區(qū)分語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)，強(qiáng)調(diào)辯證地看待二者的關(guān)系，因?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)言能力的形成離不開(kāi)對(duì)語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)的體驗(yàn)和積累，而只有語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)才是語(yǔ)言能力的反映。嚴(yán)格地將研究對(duì)象區(qū)分為外化語(yǔ)言和內(nèi)化語(yǔ)言，厚此而薄彼，不利于看清語(yǔ)言的本貌。心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)一方面強(qiáng)調(diào)了語(yǔ)言輸入作為一種經(jīng)歷和體驗(yàn)的重要性，另一方面也合理地解釋了語(yǔ)言輸出的規(guī)約性與創(chuàng)新性，兼顧了機(jī)體間和機(jī)體內(nèi)兩種語(yǔ)言研究的視角。第二，語(yǔ)言的體驗(yàn)性和意義的百科性。認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)認(rèn)為人的概念結(jié)構(gòu)具有體驗(yàn)性，人在與外部世界互動(dòng)的同時(shí)，獲得感覺(jué)和感知經(jīng)驗(yàn)，形成基本的意象圖式構(gòu)成我們的概念基礎(chǔ)；此外，意義的表征是一種百科知識(shí)，而非孤立的詞典意義，詞匯的使用只是激活我們的部分知識(shí)(Evans & Green 2006)。然而作者更多強(qiáng)調(diào)的則是語(yǔ)言符號(hào)本身的體驗(yàn)性和百科性，其中體驗(yàn)性在于語(yǔ)言接觸對(duì)語(yǔ)言知識(shí)形成的重要作用，而百科性在于語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的多樣性，即僅僅掌握詞類信息和句法規(guī)則是不足以正確使用語(yǔ)言的，詞匯的搭配、使用的頻率、構(gòu)式的創(chuàng)新等等都是隱性的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)。

作者將語(yǔ)言知識(shí)在大腦中的表征和存儲(chǔ)方式比作語(yǔ)料庫(kù)，實(shí)為新穎，和其他理論相比這一假說(shuō)兼有其優(yōu)勢(shì)和不足，尚有進(jìn)一步推敲的余地。喬氏理論認(rèn)為句法規(guī)則在大腦中表征為一套運(yùn)算系統(tǒng)，是生成句子的基礎(chǔ)，詞匯在大腦中的表征則為心理詞庫(kù)，在生成句子的過(guò)程中被激活、加工、存儲(chǔ)和提取(封宗信 2006)，這種將詞匯和語(yǔ)法理想化的區(qū)分導(dǎo)致了其理論難以對(duì)句子語(yǔ)義內(nèi)容和實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用進(jìn)行充分解釋。而心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)則從語(yǔ)言的實(shí)際使用出發(fā)，有機(jī)地將詞匯和語(yǔ)法結(jié)合，認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言的使用是二者的互相作用，從而形成語(yǔ)義的融合和張力。此外，“語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”這一比喻巧妙地在語(yǔ)言輸入的積累與語(yǔ)言輸出的方式之間建立起聯(lián)系，對(duì)語(yǔ)言使用存在的分布差異做出了合理的解釋。然而，“語(yǔ)料庫(kù)”這一概念的其他屬性卻并不完全符合語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的心理表征方式。雖然計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)和心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)都是對(duì)大量語(yǔ)篇實(shí)例的集結(jié)，而前者可以超越個(gè)體經(jīng)驗(yàn)和學(xué)科領(lǐng)域的限制，反映語(yǔ)言使用的整體和共性特征，但后者的內(nèi)容和大小卻只能取決于個(gè)人的語(yǔ)言經(jīng)歷，每個(gè)認(rèn)知主體都會(huì)建立自己的心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)，體現(xiàn)了經(jīng)驗(yàn)現(xiàn)實(shí)主義的語(yǔ)言觀。

本書(shū)在內(nèi)容上具備以下鮮明特點(diǎn)：第一，全書(shū)圍繞一個(gè)中心論題展開(kāi)，內(nèi)在邏輯性強(qiáng)，每章所討論的內(nèi)容均為一個(gè)分論點(diǎn)，結(jié)合與生成語(yǔ)言學(xué)觀點(diǎn)的比較，以語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中的大量實(shí)例、前人的研究結(jié)果、自己的觀察作為論據(jù)展開(kāi)論證，對(duì)心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)這一語(yǔ)言表征形式的闡釋十分具有說(shuō)服力。第二，運(yùn)用語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的量化分析。作者主要選用的語(yǔ)料庫(kù)為BNC和COCA，二者在語(yǔ)料的來(lái)源和語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的規(guī)模上具有普遍性和說(shuō)服力。此外，對(duì)一些新穎的或不常用的表達(dá)，作者還利用Google進(jìn)行檢索，提供了具有說(shuō)服力的數(shù)據(jù)和實(shí)例。認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)近年來(lái)一直強(qiáng)調(diào)研究方法的更新，作者將語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的方法結(jié)合到對(duì)人的心理認(rèn)知模式的研究中，為廣大研究者提供了很好的研究范例。第三，雖然心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)一說(shuō)由本書(shū)作者首先提出，但其思想的形成也是對(duì)多種語(yǔ)言理論和思想的并包與整合，包括認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的構(gòu)式理論和概念整合理論，系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的語(yǔ)境思想，心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的觸發(fā)理論，語(yǔ)言習(xí)得領(lǐng)域中的語(yǔ)言輸入和學(xué)習(xí)的理論等等。雖然這些理論的出發(fā)點(diǎn)、研究對(duì)象、研究方法不盡相同，但作者能夠?qū)⒉煌碚摰某晒?lián)系起來(lái)探討同一問(wèn)題以揭示語(yǔ)言的本質(zhì)，頗有殊途同歸之意。

本書(shū)亦有幾點(diǎn)不足：第一，結(jié)構(gòu)略顯松散，系統(tǒng)性不盡如人意。部分章節(jié)之間的聯(lián)系和過(guò)渡需做進(jìn)一步闡釋，使讀者更容易把握其脈絡(luò)。此外，有些章節(jié)沒(méi)有總結(jié)部分，整體框架還有待統(tǒng)一。第二，雖然作者強(qiáng)調(diào)心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)是語(yǔ)篇實(shí)例在大腦中的集合，但作者的討論和例證并沒(méi)有超越音位、詞素、詞匯和句法的層面。如果心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)在語(yǔ)篇層面有所體現(xiàn)，這可能會(huì)是其超越計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的一個(gè)重要方面。第三，心理語(yǔ)料庫(kù)目前也只是一種假說(shuō)，仍需要通過(guò)心理實(shí)驗(yàn)及其他方法進(jìn)一步驗(yàn)證其心理現(xiàn)實(shí)性，而“語(yǔ)言經(jīng)歷—語(yǔ)言知識(shí)—語(yǔ)言使用”之間的關(guān)系和轉(zhuǎn)化過(guò)程也需要進(jìn)一步闡釋。

本書(shū)的觀點(diǎn)新穎，論證翔實(shí)，對(duì)語(yǔ)言研究者、語(yǔ)言教師和語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)者均具有啟示作用和借鑒意義。作者運(yùn)用計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的方法探索語(yǔ)言使用的特征及語(yǔ)言和認(rèn)知的關(guān)系，為外語(yǔ)教學(xué)和語(yǔ)言對(duì)比研究提供了有價(jià)值的參考，比如可以對(duì)同一詞匯或構(gòu)式的使用情況在英語(yǔ)本族語(yǔ)、中介語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)中進(jìn)行對(duì)比分析。

Evans, V. & M. Green. 2006.CognitiveLinguistics:AnIntroduction[M]. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Taylor J.R. 2012.TheMentalCorpus[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

封宗信. 2006. 現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)流派概論[M]. 北京: 北京大學(xué)出版社.

H0-06

A

2095-5723(2013)02-0100-04

(責(zé)任編輯 姜 玲)

2013-05-16

通訊地址： 130024 吉林省長(zhǎng)春市 東北師范大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院

sofPapersinThisIssue

XUYulong(Language Study Institute, Shanghai International Studies Universtiy, Shanghai 200083, China)

With a view to promoting further research on discourse anaphora, this paper tries to explicate some of the key concepts involved in the study of discourse anaphora, namely, discourse cohesion and anaphora, reference and anaphora, sense and reference, coreference and anaphora, and anaphora and cataphora, and to clarify the connections and distinctions between these concepts.

Anintegratedconceptualframemodelapproachtospatialmotionverbs:Theenter-classverbsinEnglish(p.9)

MAYingcong&ZHANGKeding(College of Foreign Languages, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China)

Based on Frame Semantics, this paper constructs the Integrated Conceptual Frame Model out of metaphorical “AT-ON-IN” system and image schema theory, and studies the conceptual semantic frame ofenter-class spatial motion verbs so as to investigate the cognitive conceptual structure of English motion verbs especially for the underlying cognitive mechanisms. It turns out that the conceptual frame of motion verbs is constructed on one hand horizontally based on the dynamic image schema of “SOURCE-MOVE-(M)-(P)-(D)-GOAL” and on the other hand tridimensionally on the location frame of “AT-ON-IN”, which complementarily and simultaneously establish the conceptual frame model of spatial motion verbs. The semantic frame ofenter-class spatial motion verbs has four primary frame elements and three secondary frame elements. The sequence of frame elements in language expressions is flexible, and sometimes there exists the phenomenon of elements-fusion.

AnexperimentalpragmaticstudyoftheChinesecognitiveprocessingofwhatissaid(p.15)

LIRan(Basic Science Department，Tianjin Agricultural University，Tianjin 300220, China)

The recent controversial issue in pragmatics is concerned with what is said and the cognitive processing model of its minimal meaning and enriched meaning. The paper first tests the reliability of people’s pragmatic intuition and then explores the cognitive processing model of what is said through on-line and off-line experiments. Experimental results are interpreted within the frame of psychological model.

Anexplorationonthefunctionsof2PP’sindefinitereferenceinEnglish(p.23)

ZHAOChengxin(Graduate School, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China)

The 2ndpersonal pronoun(2PP) of English, namelyyou, does not distinguish between nominative and objective cases, between genders, or between singular and plural forms, which is different from the 3rdpersonal pronouns that require agreement between cases, genders and numbers. This provides 2PPs more space to give full play to its functions of indefinite reference. This study discusses the concept, types, features and pragmatic effects of the indefinite reference functions of 2PPs by applying reference theory of linguistics and empathy theory of pragmatics.

Secondlanguageacquisitionofthecomplementizers,relativepronounsandresumptivepronouns(p.29)

MAZhigang(Center for Linguistics and Applied Linguistics，Guangdong University of Foreign Studies，Guangzhou 510420, China)

Relevant research reveals that similarities and differences between native languages and target languages are of crucial influence on the construction of interlanguage grammars. The present study takes as subjects English, Russian and Arabian learners of Chinese and applies an empirical research. Results are: Arabian learners of Chinese are consistent with Chinese native grammar in judging RRCs with the complementizerDE, but are divergent in judging those withoutDE; subjects’ performance upon relative pronouns suggests that they very likely takena-ge,na-xieas one of the lexical items to realize discourse coherence; subjects’ acquisitional outcome in terms of resumptive pronouns shows that they lack the underlying representation of RRCs in Chinese, which can be attributed to the difficulty they experience in acquiring empty pronouns in Chinese.

ReviewonwrittendocumentsoftravelerstoBeijinginMingandQingDynasties—OneresearchofEastAsianwrittendocuments(p.37)

WANGYong(Institute of East Asian Culture, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China)

Under the influence of Chinese culture, East Asian countries gradually entered a civilized period, and the mark of this transition was the borrowing of the Chinese characters, which would explain why the characters are the main media of their mutual communication for more than one thousand years, though East Asian countries use different languages from each other. In Qing and Ming Dynasties, the ambassadors from North Korea and Vietnam had higher quality of cultivation about Chinese culture. They exchanged their ideas with officials or the civilians in China through writing, leaving numerous valuable documents—truthful written form of the instant dialogue, which are more original compared with the modified, and richer in knowledge and historical value compared with dialogues.

Themeaningofreadingandtheartofreading(p.43)

CHENYongguo(Faculty of Foreign Languages, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)

How many books should a university student read within four years? What to read? And how? How much spare time should people spend on reading? How to make a better schedule in order to have just some time for reading, to be a better person and to enjoy a more meaningful life? Only when one reads classics, both ancient and modern, national and foreign, can one be useful for both the country and the people. This essay bases its argument on differences in reading cultures between China and the West, takes reading as a self-cultivation or a life-habit, which will benefit oneself quite a lot in one’s lifetime. Quotations on reading from the great masters are very inspiring and would be helpful for the reader to raise a good habit of reading.

Life&TimesofMichaelK:ThesilentOtherinpost-Christianera(p.50)

SHIYunlong(College of Foreign Languages, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China)

J.M. Coetzee demonstrates by adopting the image of the silent Other in the novelLife&TimesofMichaelKthe living conditions and ways of resistance of the marginalized individuals in South Africa. By disclosing the wickedness of human society such as brutal violence, mutual estrangement and hatred and stupid self-deceit, revealing the nature of “rational justice” in western civilization and criticizing the concept of the western morality and ethics, he speaks for the marginalized Other, the disadvantageous who are outrageously oppressed and exploited and reflects on the issues such as the trauma of South Africans in history, the suffocating history in South Africa, power of discourse, discipline and punishment in South Africa.

Trauma,busynessandattitude—ApositivepsychologicalreadingofTheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin(p.58)

XUEYufeng(College of Foreign Languages, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China)

According to the Positive Psychology born in the United States at the end of the 20thcentury, the positive attitude is a good medicine for trauma, and busyness is a symbol of positive psychology. Benjamin Franklin, in his 84 years of long life, encountered numerous traumatic events, but since he was positive and was always busy with study, various works and perfection of himself, he had no time to experience the negative effect of trauma. Busyness and positive attitude are two important factors for Franklin’s success.

Playandcoexistence:AstudyofGadamer’stheoryofliterature(p.64)

QINMingli&YANLu(School of Foreign Languages, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China)

This article points out the inheritance, development and innovation of Kant, Hiller and others’ research from the analysis of the relevant theories and major source about the concepts of play and co-existence in philosophy. It elaborates and refines the major theory of play and co-existence in order to catch the new angles in which Gadamer supplies the brilliance in his concept and find out the profound and revelatory significance of research on literature. Moreover, the logic analysis on this article lies on the illustration of Gadamer’s literary views and the inside of the literary theory under the guidance of the theoretical frame of the essence of play concept which includes three dimensions—the subjectivity, authority and highly sharing with the demonstration of the mode of participation and coexistence which springs from the course of the play. Therefore, the article concludes that the play as the process of understanding refers to the literary comprehension and demonstrates the essential characteristics.

AninterpretationoftheidentityofDilseyfromtheperspectiveofthepost-colonialism(p.72)

LIChangting(Institute of International Cooperation, Pingdingshan Industrial College of Technology, Pingdingshan 467000, China)

Mammy, as a common subject in the “myth” of the Old South, is the “other” marginalized by ethnocentrism. Dilsey, the mammy inTheSoundandtheFury, followed this tradition to some extent with a bit difference. The difference lies in the awakening of her self-awareness at the end of the novel. But the awakening is comparatively passive and incomplete, which in some sense reflects Faulkner’s contradiction on the racial issues. Based on the post-colonialism, with reference of the society, politics, history and racial status of the South of America in the age of Faulkner, this paper intends to analyze Dilsey’s “other” identity, self-identity constructing and awakening, from which the author’s dual-racial consciousness may be revealed.

InnovationsandpracticesinMTIinstruction:AcasestudyofSITSatGDUFS(p.78)

ZHAOJunfeng&MULei(School of Interpreting and Translation Studies, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou 510420, China)

MTI education has been widely conducted in the country ever since the approval of establishment of degree education programme of the Master of Translation and Interpreting by the Degree Committee of the State Council of P. R. China in 2007, and relevant evaluation upon the first group of 15 universities was also initiated and completed in 2013. This paper takes the pedagogical practices at the School of Interpreting and Translation Studies (SITS) at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) as an example, explores and summarizes the relevant innovations and experiences in MTI instruction, covering such issues as academic positioning, education philosophy, curriculum configurations, teaching practices as well as education schemes. It is hoped that such innovations and practices could shed some light on the development of MTI education in the country.

ReflectionsonMTIteachingconformityassessment(p.86)

QIUBeiling(School of Foreign Studies, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China)

In the spirit of promoting the healthy development of MTI program, MTI conformity assessment is undertaken around China. This paper analyzes measures and experience of Nanjing University in preparing for MTI conformity assessment and argues that training units being evaluated should take the assessment as an opportunity to promote the sustainable development of MTI program.

OnthemodeloftrainingmedicaltranslatorsandinterpretersinMTIprograms(p.89)

NIEWenxinetal.(School of Foreign Studies, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China)

This paper first highlights the status quo of the development of MTI programs in China and the needs for establishing the features that distinguish one MTI program from another. Then, along with the discussion of the practice of Xi’an Jiaotong University, it probes into such issues as the goals of training, designing of the entrance examinations, ways of teacher development, courses offered, teaching methodologies, skills testing of translation and interpreting, as well as ways of on- and off-campus practice in training professional medical translators and interpreters so as to increase the knowledge area of MTI development in theories and practice.

Buildinganewstrans-editorinternshipbase:AXISUexperience(p.95)

HEYing&LIRuilin(School of Translation Studies, Xi’an International Studies University, Xi’an 710128, China)

This paper first unfolds itself against the backdrop of building student translator internship bases, followed by a critical review of the existing patterns of internship. It then elaborates on the formative process of XISU-GT Digital News Trans-editor Internship Base in terms of its overall mission, organizational administration, environmental scaffolding, curriculum development, intellectual support and workflow. The paper argues that a stable, orderly and systematic internship base conduces to the shaping of a translator education culture that highlights the notions of “l(fā)earning, reflection and practice”. Such an internship scheme is particularly essential for translator development in areas of inquiry-based learning, critical thinking, balancing and decision-making, interpersonal skills, innovation and social responsibility. Regular exposure to collaborative experience in the real-world context of translation is expected to exert a profound influence on the lifelong learning and individual development of translation learners.

Anewinterpretationofthementalrepresentationoflanguage:AreviewofTheMentalCorpus(p.100)

TANGGeliang&YANGZhong(School of Foreign Languages, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China)

TheMentalCorpusby J. R. Taylor puts forward a bold hypothesis about how language is represented in the mind. It attempts to argue for the reality of mental corpus from various aspects of actual language use by synthesizing theories of cognitive linguistics, methods in corpus linguistics as well as results of previous research. The thesis of this book is: we accumulate linguistic experience through exposure to usage events, and from these experiences we make generalizations of our knowledge of language, which consists of all the facts recorded in the mental corpus, and language use is a process of blending existing resources and knowledge. This book makes significant theoretical contributions to the study of language, psychology and cognition, and provides valuable implications for language teachers and learners.