借助思維導(dǎo)圖，備考概要寫(xiě)作

浙江

概要寫(xiě)作提供一篇350詞以內(nèi)的短文，要求考生基于該短文寫(xiě)出一篇60詞左右的內(nèi)容概要。雖然詞數(shù)只有60左右，但概要寫(xiě)作耗時(shí)較長(zhǎng)，主要難在：一方面，要讀透原文，找全要點(diǎn)；另一方面，要高度概括，獨(dú)立而連貫地原創(chuàng)語(yǔ)言。思維導(dǎo)圖具有條理性、貼合性、概括性等特點(diǎn)，能幫助學(xué)生快速厘清思路，識(shí)記所學(xué)，高效備考。教師可以引入思維導(dǎo)圖，引導(dǎo)學(xué)生使用思維導(dǎo)圖，在教與學(xué)中有效地訓(xùn)練概要寫(xiě)作，夯實(shí)概要寫(xiě)作語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ)。下面，筆者結(jié)合具體實(shí)例，談?wù)勅绾谓柚季S導(dǎo)圖，在訓(xùn)練中備考概要寫(xiě)作。

一、通讀原文，明了大意

概要寫(xiě)作是讀寫(xiě)結(jié)合的考查形式，主要考查學(xué)生對(duì)文章主旨大意的理解、對(duì)文章整體結(jié)構(gòu)的把握，考查學(xué)生是否能準(zhǔn)確獲取重要信息，并對(duì)其進(jìn)行語(yǔ)言重組，簡(jiǎn)要概括原文的主要內(nèi)容。考生只有讀懂原文，才能“去次存主”，抓住要點(diǎn)。因此，在拿到一篇概要寫(xiě)作后，首先要快速通讀原文，明了大意。

【概要寫(xiě)作原文】

Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments must make every effort to minimize（最小化）discomfort,illness,and pain.And procedures that cause animals great suffering are permitted only when no other procedure is available.Moreover,there are federal regulations stating how animals are to be housed,fed,and preserved.Not only must researchers try very hard to avoid causing physical discomfort,they are also required to promote the psychological well-being of some species of research animals,such as monkeys.

Why should animals be used for research in the first place? Is it really possible to learn about human behavior from the results of research employing rats and pigeons? The answer is that psychological research that does employ animals has a different focus and is designed to answer different questions than research that use humans.For example,the shorter life span of animals (rats live an average of two years) allows researchers to learn about the effects of aging in a much smaller period than they could by using human participants.Moreover,some principles of behavior are similar across species,and so some basic behavioral phenomena can be studied more simply in animals.Finally,some studies require large numbers of participants that share similar backgrounds or have been exposed to particular environments—conditions that could not practically be met with human beings.

Research using animals has provided psychologists with information that has greatly benefited humans.For example,it provided the keys to noticing eye disorders in children early enough to prevent permanent damage.

Despite the value of research with animal participants,the use of animals in psychological research is highly controversial.For example,some critics believe that animals have rights no less significant than those of humans,and that because animals are unable to agree to participation in studies,their use is not moral.Others object to the use of animals on methodological（方法論的）grounds,saying it is impossible to generalize from findings on nonhuman species to humans.

快速通讀上面概要寫(xiě)作原文可知，其介紹了動(dòng)物心理實(shí)驗(yàn)，具體包括為什么要用動(dòng)物進(jìn)行研究、動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)的優(yōu)勢(shì)以及其引起的公眾爭(zhēng)議。

二、識(shí)別文體，梳理結(jié)構(gòu)

說(shuō)明文、議論文和記敘文是概要寫(xiě)作原文的通常文體，其篇章結(jié)構(gòu)有所不同。說(shuō)明文的闡述方式有舉例說(shuō)明、因果說(shuō)明、類(lèi)比（對(duì)比）說(shuō)明，結(jié)構(gòu)通常為：引言（概說(shuō)主題、問(wèn)題、現(xiàn)象）→正文（分說(shuō)說(shuō)明）→結(jié)尾（總說(shuō)總結(jié)）；議論文結(jié)構(gòu)通常為：引論（提出觀點(diǎn)）→本論（論證觀點(diǎn)）→結(jié)論（重申觀點(diǎn)）；記敘文一般按照時(shí)間順序展開(kāi)，由核心“六要素”（when,where,who,what,how,why）構(gòu)成，情節(jié)的推進(jìn)包括開(kāi)端、發(fā)展、高潮、結(jié)局，其結(jié)構(gòu)通常為：引言（引出故事）→正文（發(fā)展故事）→結(jié)尾（結(jié)束故事）。對(duì)于這三種文體及其結(jié)構(gòu)，筆者用思維導(dǎo)圖總結(jié)如下，方便學(xué)生識(shí)記：

上述例文為說(shuō)明文，主題是Psychological experiments on animals，文章結(jié)構(gòu)可以用思維導(dǎo)圖表達(dá)為：

三、預(yù)測(cè)位置，找主題句

主題句多位于段首或段尾，也有位于段中的情況。英語(yǔ)思維模式一般是直線演繹的，開(kāi)門(mén)見(jiàn)山亮觀點(diǎn)，再解釋說(shuō)明，因此段首句常為主題句，其他則為支撐句，對(duì)主題句作說(shuō)明、解釋、補(bǔ)充、支持等；段尾主題句則是對(duì)全段內(nèi)容進(jìn)行總結(jié)，予以強(qiáng)調(diào)，給讀者留下深刻印象；段中主題句多為轉(zhuǎn)折句，段首通常是引言，呈現(xiàn)話題，然后由however,but,yet,anyhow,nevertheless,although等詞連接，話鋒一轉(zhuǎn)，切入主要觀點(diǎn)。也有一種情況，沒(méi)有主題句，需要?dú)w納和概括，多是段落中由and,moreover,also等詞連接，為并列關(guān)系。因此，主題句的位置可概括為：

上述例文中各段的主題句可以呈現(xiàn)為：

四、分析句際，明確主次

句子之間通常存在以下邏輯關(guān)系，各邏輯關(guān)系之下的主次信息也有所不同，總結(jié)如下：

其中，轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系，要點(diǎn)通常在轉(zhuǎn)折部分，即轉(zhuǎn)折后的句子；因果關(guān)系，分為前因后果或者前果后因，需根據(jù)作者的寫(xiě)作意圖確定主次信息；解釋關(guān)系，是一個(gè)句子提出主題，其他句子進(jìn)行解釋、說(shuō)明，被解釋的句子為主要點(diǎn)。

根據(jù)句子之間的邏輯分析，學(xué)生可以對(duì)上述例文中各段的主次信息進(jìn)行梳理，用思維導(dǎo)圖表達(dá)如下：

值得注意的是，次要信息常被學(xué)生直接忽略、刪除，這是不可取的。概要寫(xiě)作，并非簡(jiǎn)單地砍掉次要信息，呈現(xiàn)主要信息；而是重在“詞少信息全”，以“概要”表達(dá)“要點(diǎn)”，“麻雀雖小，五臟俱全”，使讀者讀了概要短文，了解全部主次信息。概要寫(xiě)作又好比拍照，照片雖小，可窺全貌。因此，對(duì)于次要信息，也要視情況而定，適當(dāng)寫(xiě)進(jìn)去。

五、找關(guān)鍵詞，獨(dú)立表達(dá)

結(jié)合主題句，學(xué)生還可以在語(yǔ)篇中找出關(guān)鍵詞，通過(guò)關(guān)鍵詞串聯(lián)主要信息，幫助其綜合概括出獨(dú)立的主要要點(diǎn)。關(guān)鍵詞主要有以下四類(lèi)：1.陳述主體（話題實(shí)詞），即語(yǔ)篇的陳述對(duì)象、主要話題、中心觀點(diǎn)等；2.陳述主體的謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞，即對(duì)陳述對(duì)象進(jìn)行陳述的謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞；3.高頻重復(fù)詞，即在語(yǔ)篇中頻繁出現(xiàn)的詞，這些詞往往是作者反復(fù)強(qiáng)調(diào)或重點(diǎn)體現(xiàn)的內(nèi)容，往往是關(guān)鍵詞；4.概括性實(shí)詞，這些詞常是上義詞，由下義詞對(duì)此進(jìn)行解釋、論證或補(bǔ)充，具有概括性，也是關(guān)鍵詞。學(xué)生可用思維導(dǎo)圖輔助識(shí)記：

到此，學(xué)生可以對(duì)例文的主要要點(diǎn)獨(dú)立表達(dá)為：Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments must follow procedures and regulations to avoid animals’ physical and psychological discomfort.（要點(diǎn)一）Psychological research that employs animals aims to learn about human behaviors in a much smaller period,more simply and more practically.（要點(diǎn)二）Research using animals provides psychologists with information that has greatly benefited humans,like preventing eye disorders.（要點(diǎn)三）Despite the value of research,the use of animals in psychological research is highly controversial for animals’ equal rights,researchers’ being not moral and not good methods.（要點(diǎn)四）

六、詞匯替換，自主表達(dá)

概要寫(xiě)作要求“完全使用自己的語(yǔ)言”，即要求學(xué)生用自己的話來(lái)表達(dá)原文的要點(diǎn)。有些學(xué)生苦于缺乏“一義多詞”的積累，不能有效地替換詞匯，只能“照搬原文”，降低了表達(dá)的自主性，拉低了分?jǐn)?shù)。因此，在平時(shí)學(xué)習(xí)中，學(xué)生要有意識(shí)地積累同義詞、反義詞和派生詞，以便在概要寫(xiě)作中根據(jù)語(yǔ)境靈活替換，擺脫“摘抄原文”的寫(xiě)作模式，提高自主表達(dá)的表征性。學(xué)生可以用思維導(dǎo)圖，既留出足夠空間，又結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊地積累詞匯。以名詞為例：

另外，動(dòng)詞：get (acquire),improve (promote),reduce(decrease),help (assist),etc.；形容詞：rich (wealthy),happy(delighted),clever (smart),obvious (evident),etc.；副詞：only (merely),greatly (much),often (frequently),gradually(steadily),etc.；詞性互換：prefer (preference),compare(comparison),make a decision (decide),a variety of (various),etc.；反義詞（正話反說(shuō)）：accept (refuse),alive (dead),allow (forbid),empty (full),etc.以上可互換的詞匯，可分別以思維導(dǎo)圖呈現(xiàn)，進(jìn)行積累、識(shí)記。

現(xiàn)在，學(xué)生對(duì)例文概要寫(xiě)作中的有些詞匯，適當(dāng)進(jìn)行替換：要點(diǎn)一：must →should,regulations →rules,avoid animals’→help animals avoid,discomfort →suffering；要點(diǎn)二：employ →use,in a much smaller period →more effectively；要點(diǎn)三：provide...with...→offer...to...,greatly →much；要點(diǎn)四：despite →although,value →valuable,is highly controversial →has caused sharp arguments,being not moral →immorality,not good →imperfect。形成如下短文：

Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.（要點(diǎn)一）Psychological research that uses animals aims to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.（要點(diǎn)二）Research using animals offers information to psychologists that has benefited humans much,like preventing eye disorders.（要點(diǎn)三）Although the research is valuable,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’immorality and imperfect methods.（要點(diǎn)四）

七、巧用銜接，連貫表達(dá)

語(yǔ)篇內(nèi)存在句際和段際的邏輯關(guān)系，在概要寫(xiě)作中，也要體現(xiàn)出來(lái)。理順邏輯關(guān)系，才能連貫表達(dá)，也才能更加縝密地通過(guò)概要寫(xiě)作表達(dá)出原文的主要內(nèi)容和內(nèi)在邏輯、思想，讓讀者“以點(diǎn)見(jiàn)面”。而在獨(dú)立表達(dá)要點(diǎn)后，段際邏輯關(guān)系就體現(xiàn)為獨(dú)立要點(diǎn)之間的句際關(guān)系。因此，需要分析獨(dú)立要點(diǎn)在原文中的邏輯關(guān)系，并適當(dāng)?shù)剡\(yùn)用連接詞（副詞、連詞和部分短語(yǔ)）表達(dá)邏輯關(guān)系，或運(yùn)用語(yǔ)法關(guān)系（人稱照應(yīng)、指示照應(yīng)等）與語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)（從句、分詞結(jié)構(gòu)等）的連接功能，使得概要寫(xiě)作表達(dá)連貫。學(xué)生可以通過(guò)以下思維導(dǎo)圖的方式，積累各類(lèi)邏輯關(guān)系的銜接詞，隨時(shí)補(bǔ)充，清晰識(shí)記：

例文中的概要寫(xiě)作，學(xué)生就可以通過(guò)這樣的方法，進(jìn)行修改：要點(diǎn)三：research using animals與要點(diǎn)二同主語(yǔ)，可用it指代。與要點(diǎn)二為遞進(jìn)關(guān)系，加副詞also；要點(diǎn)四：與前面為轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系，將although改為however。形成短文如下：

Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.（要點(diǎn)一）Psychological research that uses animals aims to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.（要點(diǎn)二）It also offers information to psychologists that has benefited humans much,like preventing eye disorders.（要點(diǎn)三）The research is valuable,however,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’ immorality and imperfect methods.（要點(diǎn)四）

八、優(yōu)化句式，花樣表達(dá)

概要寫(xiě)作除考查學(xué)生的概括性思維能力外，更注重考查其語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用能力，檢測(cè)其綜合運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言的基本功。概要寫(xiě)作，學(xué)生想要獲得高分，不僅要寫(xiě)對(duì)句子，更要寫(xiě)好句子。應(yīng)在基礎(chǔ)表達(dá)之外，提升句式運(yùn)用的檔次，通過(guò)高級(jí)、復(fù)雜的句式與簡(jiǎn)短句的互換等，優(yōu)化句子結(jié)構(gòu)，使得句式多樣，花樣表達(dá)，提檔提分?？梢杂盟季S導(dǎo)圖將常用的高級(jí)句式、語(yǔ)法表達(dá)等概括如下，并以“圖”的形式“嵌入”腦海，提醒自己在寫(xiě)作時(shí)要適時(shí)運(yùn)用：

針對(duì)例文的概要寫(xiě)作，學(xué)生可以優(yōu)化句式，進(jìn)行花樣表達(dá)：要點(diǎn)一：定語(yǔ)從句改為分詞結(jié)構(gòu)；要點(diǎn)二：定語(yǔ)從句刪除，并改為短語(yǔ)表達(dá)；要點(diǎn)三：定語(yǔ)從句改為介詞短語(yǔ)。形成終稿如下：

Researchers using animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.（要點(diǎn)一）Research makes psychologists able to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.（要點(diǎn)二）It also offers information to psychologists for much benefit of humans like preventing eye disorders.（要點(diǎn)三）The research is valuable,however,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’ immorality and imperfect methods.（要點(diǎn)四）

借助思維導(dǎo)圖，重在借助其便利性、清晰性和助于識(shí)記的優(yōu)勢(shì)。在使用思維導(dǎo)圖時(shí)要注意以下幾個(gè)方面的原則：

1.簡(jiǎn)便性原則。在日常教學(xué)和學(xué)習(xí)中，不是一定要使用思維導(dǎo)圖工具作圖，不必復(fù)雜、美觀、花哨。可以根據(jù)內(nèi)容和自己的思考，以方便達(dá)成目的為宗旨，隨手作圖，幫助自己積累知識(shí)，梳理思路，方便記憶等。

2.靈活性原則。思維導(dǎo)圖沒(méi)有固定的模板，也沒(méi)有固有的模式，可根據(jù)需求，靈活地創(chuàng)造屬于自己的獨(dú)特的思維導(dǎo)圖。甚至在作好的思維導(dǎo)圖中，還可以根據(jù)內(nèi)容需求進(jìn)行二次創(chuàng)造。

3.適度性原則。思維導(dǎo)圖是一種簡(jiǎn)單、有效和實(shí)用的有效思維圖形工具，廣泛用于教與學(xué)活動(dòng)中。但思維導(dǎo)圖并不適用于所有內(nèi)容，也不是什么內(nèi)容都要用思維導(dǎo)圖來(lái)展現(xiàn)。要根據(jù)學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)容和個(gè)體的需求，適時(shí)、適度、適量地運(yùn)用。