文化景觀作為區(qū)域景觀研究概念
——德國圖林根州文化景觀研究、教學(xué)與規(guī)劃實踐

著：（德）伊爾可·馬紹爾 （德）漢斯-海因里?！み~耶 孔洞一 譯：阮慧婷

在自然保護和環(huán)境規(guī)劃的框架之下，景觀被過于片面地理解為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)。在此條件下，從20世紀80年代末開始，在德國就對景觀概念的定義和內(nèi)涵進行了新的反思，重新考慮景觀的文化形成和發(fā)展過程。而這里的文化，既是傳統(tǒng)性的，也是地域性的。以地理學(xué)為基礎(chǔ)的研究討論在此背景下展開。

在對自然保護的重新認識中，“自然和景觀的多樣性、獨特性和美學(xué)性”（自然保護法中的保護對象）[1]其實是受到文化因素顯著影響的。此外，風(fēng)景園林學(xué)科越來越多地認識到，需要加強社會對景觀和歸屬感的興趣，為提升各地域人們的生活質(zhì)量做出重要貢獻。在歐洲范圍內(nèi)，這些新的認知通過《歐盟景觀公約》[2]得到肯定。在德國，不僅通過景觀設(shè)計和景觀規(guī)劃來實施，還通過國家空間規(guī)劃和古跡保護等專業(yè)的研究成果來控制。因此，文化景觀保護與發(fā)展成為德國重要的、跨學(xué)科領(lǐng)域的任務(wù)。

圖林根州的埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的文化景觀研究團隊，對于文化景觀的觀察、記錄和規(guī)劃應(yīng)用，有著15年的經(jīng)驗，積累了大量的資料并開展過大量深入研究及教學(xué)實踐。下文概述了德國語境下文化景觀概念的含義，并闡述了圖林根地區(qū)文化景觀研究的一個例子。

1 文化景觀的研究系統(tǒng)和概念

歐洲無處不在的文化景觀是人類活動在自然空間中的文化印記。從歷史的角度看，新石器時代人類最早的定居生活可以說是文化景觀發(fā)展的起點。例如，在圖林根州的Rodungsinseln是早期人類的定居點和墓葬地，后來的農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟和林牧業(yè)生產(chǎn)塑造了周圍的森林，這里同樣是人類在肥沃的黃土地上所經(jīng)歷的農(nóng)業(yè)文化的證明。逐漸地，景觀隨著人類的生產(chǎn)生活而發(fā)生改變①。人類居住地的進一步擴張和文化的發(fā)展導(dǎo)致了差異化的土地使用系統(tǒng)的產(chǎn)生。例如，低矮叢林和中高叢林作為經(jīng)濟林和用材林，隨著土地使用和技術(shù)的進步以及部分社會規(guī)范和政治制度的變革，歐洲景觀逐步發(fā)展成了今天的形態(tài)（如溝壟、梯田、灌溉系統(tǒng)），同時由于社會規(guī)范和政治制度（如領(lǐng)主制度和土地政策）的變革，而得以發(fā)展為今天的形態(tài)[3]。這樣的文化景觀沿革在歐洲中部地區(qū)一直持續(xù)到19世紀末，從而導(dǎo)致了景觀和生物多樣性的最大化。

正是基于這些復(fù)雜的社會變革和土地利用系統(tǒng)，才出現(xiàn)了今天景觀的“多樣性、獨特性和美學(xué)性”，例如圖林根地區(qū)的城堡以及歷史泥炭池的文化景觀（圖1）。另外也有受到文化和技術(shù)性因素強烈影響和塑造的農(nóng)業(yè)文化景觀要素，例如葡萄園的石頭擋土墻、農(nóng)業(yè)灌溉渠和草甸灌溉系統(tǒng)等。由于人們不斷地進行優(yōu)化自然資源使用的嘗試[4]，使得這些地區(qū)不僅塑造了景觀的“多樣性、獨特性和美學(xué)性”，而且也對其生物多樣性做出了重大貢獻，同時也反映了文化和自然因素相互作用的結(jié)果。

綜上所述，景觀就是文化景觀，文化景觀就是景觀。通過上面所述的社會變革、土地利用、技術(shù)進步等文化與自然共同作用的方式，多種形式的文化景觀實際上是風(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃中經(jīng)常關(guān)注和研究的對象。而且，文化景觀概念比景觀概念具有更多積極意義和附加內(nèi)涵[5-6]。在這樣的情況下，豐富而且有價值的文化景觀，即在歷史過程中人類活動留下來的某些有價值的要素或遺跡，也因此具備了特殊的多樣性和可識別性。

在明確景觀是文化與自然交互作用的結(jié)果后，并且以景觀的歷史發(fā)展過程和空間特性多樣性與可識別性為著眼點，德國的歷史地理學(xué)家Schenk教授定義了文化景觀研究體系：“文化景觀，是人類在其生存過程中根據(jù)其社會、經(jīng)濟、文化和審美需求來改造和適應(yīng)的自然空間；其隨著時間的推移，一直保持著持續(xù)動態(tài)的發(fā)展，并且反映著社會經(jīng)濟文化不斷變化的結(jié)果?！薄霸诖诉^程中，過去的空間中的文化基因以及當(dāng)代的發(fā)展控制因素，共同塑造了空間的品質(zhì)，從而顯示出可持續(xù)的區(qū)域發(fā)展?jié)摿?。”[7]

2 圖林根州的文化景觀研究

2.1 圖林根地區(qū)作為研究區(qū)域

從地理位置上開看，德國的圖林根州位于德國中部和歐洲的地理中心，也是德國最古老的人類定居地之一（人類活動遺跡可以追溯到40萬年前）。由于這一地理位置優(yōu)勢，圖林根州幾千年來一直保持著與周圍地區(qū)和國家的密切文化交流。從新石器時代和青銅時代的考古發(fā)現(xiàn)中可以證實，肥沃的圖林根盆地很久以前就已經(jīng)是德國中部地區(qū)的文化和經(jīng)濟中心。自中世紀以來，廣袤森林里的木材和山區(qū)的礦產(chǎn)就一直是圖林根地區(qū)的特產(chǎn)。這樣的原材料和物產(chǎn)促進了它與周邊地區(qū)的貿(mào)易往來，以及區(qū)域間的交通網(wǎng)絡(luò)的整合。圖林根州的首府埃爾夫特市就特別得益于這樣的交通網(wǎng)絡(luò)，從中世紀開始，就是歐洲重要的商貿(mào)通道“via regia”②的中心節(jié)點城市。

在這一有利的地理位置和自然環(huán)境背景下，圖林根地區(qū)自中世紀以來逐漸發(fā)展成為一個具有內(nèi)部景觀差異化，并在歷史時期中間歇性地繁榮的經(jīng)濟區(qū)。這個區(qū)域由領(lǐng)地內(nèi)不勝枚舉的許多小型領(lǐng)主地拼接而成，并且由其中大量小型自然景觀斑塊互相串聯(lián)。這樣的歷史和地理原因，造成了圖林根文化景觀成為德國最多樣化的區(qū)域之一（圖1）。

以上所說差異化的文化景觀空間和顯著的多樣性，是系統(tǒng)深入地研究圖林根文化景觀的原因之一。另一個原因是在政治和經(jīng)濟轉(zhuǎn)型幾十年后（兩德統(tǒng)一之后），歷史性文化景觀中許多不顯眼的要素面臨著消失的威脅。而一些文化景觀在20世紀東德的動態(tài)發(fā)展中得以完好保留下來（與西德幾十年經(jīng)濟繁榮的地區(qū)形成鮮明對比），至今仍在許多景觀區(qū)域中持續(xù)存在。而人們對其進行保護的前提是了解和認知。甚至在21世紀初，圖林根地區(qū)還有沒有與此相關(guān)的保護名錄。于是，從那時起埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)在文化景觀研究小組的機構(gòu)架構(gòu)下，就開始了基礎(chǔ)資料收集和歸檔研究（圖2）。

2.2 文化景觀作為埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的教學(xué)項目

自2003年，埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科學(xué)大學(xué)的文化景觀研究小組先后在卡春·施密德（Catrin Schmidt）教授（自2007年起在德累斯頓工業(yè)大學(xué)任教），依爾可·馬紹爾教授（2009年至今）和漢斯-海因里?！み~耶教授（2009年至今）的帶領(lǐng)下，對圖林根地區(qū)的文化景觀進行大量深入系統(tǒng)的研究。研究主要任務(wù)是對方法論的發(fā)展創(chuàng)新和區(qū)域內(nèi)文化景觀基礎(chǔ)知識的了解。其主要內(nèi)容是進行數(shù)據(jù)采集、登記整理和價值評估等方面的研究，以及劃分具有典型代表意義的文化景觀片區(qū)及對其進行深入的主題研究。

1 圖林根州的Gotha地區(qū)“三山丘”，泥炭池文化景觀The Wachsenburg in Thuringia in the area“Drei Gleichen”near Gotha. The waters are two former peat bites

2 圖林根州鄉(xiāng)村發(fā)展與旅游規(guī)劃2025Thuringia regional development and tourism development planning 2025

從2012年起，隨著“自然保護與環(huán)境規(guī)劃和文化景觀發(fā)展”課程被納入到埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的風(fēng)景園林學(xué)碩士教學(xué)計劃，越來越多的學(xué)生愿意選擇文化景觀作為碩士論文題目來研究?；谖幕坝^歷史的基礎(chǔ)課程，在碩士研討會模塊里會講授歷史性文化景觀要素的制圖與信息收集方法。在過去10年中，由埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)開發(fā)的“圖林根文化景觀信息庫”（www.kulturlandschaft.fh-erfurt.de，圖3），也在其建立的過程中與新勃蘭登堡州應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的被譽為“文化景觀大百科”的KLEKs系統(tǒng)[8]進行密切合作，而成為今天圖林根文化景觀研究的門戶網(wǎng)站和成果展示信息庫[9]。

埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的文化景觀研究成果是一套4卷的《圖林根文化景觀》工作手冊（圖4）。該系統(tǒng)叢書為圖林根州的文化景觀相關(guān)的廣大機構(gòu)和研究者，提供了翔實的背景資料和輔助工具。其中有2冊關(guān)于文化景觀要素收集和資料來源整理的方法介紹，涵蓋歷史地圖、山水畫及圖林根地區(qū)的傳說和民間文化信息等大量相關(guān)資料，還包括對這些文化景觀要素收集的方法（例如圖林根文化景觀要素登記表）和價值評估標(biāo)準，以及在區(qū)域和地方層面上可能對規(guī)劃策略和方案提供的導(dǎo)則。另外2冊關(guān)于在選定區(qū)域內(nèi)的文化景觀要素的背景文本和地圖數(shù)據(jù)。這些要素在區(qū)域內(nèi)的鄉(xiāng)村尺度層面上存在較大的差異性，但其內(nèi)涵也非常豐富。例如，歷史聚落和建筑、歷史建筑材料和天然石材景觀、農(nóng)業(yè)莊園和傳統(tǒng)農(nóng)耕機理、葡萄種植園、果園、林園、藥草園、歷史牧場、歷史用材林、歷史交通線和水利設(shè)施、歷史風(fēng)車和水車、歷史采礦區(qū)，等等。從史前到現(xiàn)在，圖林根文化景觀發(fā)展也隨著時代推演一直延續(xù)著，這樣也使得文化景觀要素可以一直被記錄和研究下去[10]。

目前，埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)的文化景觀研究團隊正在開發(fā)《文化景觀圖林根地圖集》。這是一個以突出圖林根州歷史和現(xiàn)狀的文化景觀特征和內(nèi)涵的闡釋性地圖集，其成果可以用于空間規(guī)劃過程。這個地圖集的另一個研究目標(biāo)是制定文化景觀的空間結(jié)構(gòu)分類和解釋具有特色的、有價值的文化景觀特征，以便他們在空間規(guī)劃中得到更好的保護。

3 文化景觀規(guī)劃實踐中的工作方法

根據(jù)《德國聯(lián)邦自然保護法》和廣義上的景觀規(guī)劃任務(wù)，景觀和文化景觀必須在自然和人文綜合背景下來分析。通常的方法是對單體對象的功能屬性，或者對某一類受保護對象進行分析和評估。同時，德國目前在專業(yè)實踐的差異化領(lǐng)域中，也尚沒有統(tǒng)一的標(biāo)準化規(guī)范。而必須首先確定應(yīng)該在何種框架下來對文化景觀及其要素進行收集和評估[10]。將收集的“文檔”和“特征”加以特性判定，才能夠使人們對文化景觀進行“識別”研究。

3.1 文化景觀要素和對象的收集

自20世紀90年代以來，對歷史性文化景觀和其要素的研究逐步深入。在具體的實踐中，重點體現(xiàn)在對典型和具備特征的歷史文化景觀要素的記錄和評價上。1987年，德國文化景觀研究者Gunzelmann教授提出了第一種記錄和評估那些未列入古跡保護名錄的文化景觀要素分析方法。而后，1994年W?bse出版了一本歷史性文化景觀標(biāo)準化記錄手冊，對文化景觀要素記錄的前提是對要素對象進行精準定義。在實踐中，2001/2003年的德國“景觀保護大會”（Landesdenkmalpflegekonferenz）小組委員會的這個“文化景觀保護定義”被反復(fù)使用：“所謂歷史文化景觀及其要素結(jié)構(gòu)，是指那些由于經(jīng)濟、社會、政治或美學(xué)的原因，而不再以現(xiàn)存的方式存在、形成或者繼續(xù)發(fā)展，也就是說他們來自一個完結(jié)的歷史時代。”[11]

收集文化景觀要素的“制圖指南”[12-13]在這里起到了重要的導(dǎo)向作用。未來收集信息和制作圖表，就需要建立基于數(shù)字化系統(tǒng)的動態(tài)化信息庫的文化景觀要素目錄和類型表。在文化景觀數(shù)據(jù)庫系統(tǒng)中，常見把文化景觀要素劃為不同的功能類型。這里不存在一個最終定型的完整名錄，歷史文化景觀要素的分類也因地區(qū)和文化而異。

表1 文化景觀要素評估價值Tab. 1 Value of cultural landscape elements assessment

表2 文化景觀要素加權(quán)Tab. 2 Addition of value to cultural landscape elements assessment

研究所列出的要素通常見證了在當(dāng)前社會條件下，在相應(yīng)的時代內(nèi)對各自景觀空間的本土資源的集約化使用。同時，它們也表現(xiàn)了文化需求和當(dāng)?shù)氐慕ㄖに嚒τ跉v史文化景觀的評價，Büttner博士在2008年提出了一種對象表述和不依賴于使用者的評價系統(tǒng)，其中將歷史性的佐證價值作為了重要的評價標(biāo)準之一（表 1～2）[14]。

盡管有客觀科學(xué)的歸納程序和評價標(biāo)準，但在實踐中不能排除不同價值取向的人會對評估對象客體產(chǎn)生不同的認知和分類評價。這就要求在價值判斷方面，除了考證其歷史佐證價值之外，還須具備相當(dāng)多的具體知識，尤其是考古學(xué)、歷史保護和文化人類學(xué)領(lǐng)域的知識，而不僅局限于文化景觀的史前遺跡。單個文化景觀要素的意義，通常只在其背景環(huán)境中才變得明確。因此，在規(guī)劃實踐中，始終需要對單個要素的位置和聚合狀態(tài)加以分析。這些對于“文化景觀區(qū)”的界定和評估也是非常重要的。文化景觀是大于其組成的單體部分之和的。

3.2 文化景觀不同層面劃分

原則上，應(yīng)該將國家或地區(qū)層面的文化景觀分析與地方層面區(qū)分開。Büttner在2008年提出了4個研究層面[13]70。

1）框架層面。研究者通過確定研究區(qū)域的自然和文化景觀基礎(chǔ)，從而確定“景觀塑造影響因素”。在此層面，文化景觀發(fā)展可以被劃分為不同的歷史階段。研究成果的表述形式通常是報告文本。

2）對象層面。研究基于地理信息系統(tǒng)（GIS）的數(shù)據(jù)集成，對歷史文化景觀要素進行收集與評價。研究成果的表述形式通常是地圖或地圖集。

3）空間層面。研究者以總體性的視角對文化景觀區(qū)域進行描述、劃分和評價。研究成果以空間簡述性文本和“文化景觀區(qū)域地圖”來表述。

4）制定總體目標(biāo)和指導(dǎo)性方針以及規(guī)劃提案。

與此同時，德國也首次在全國范圍內(nèi)開展文化景觀分析工作。例如，巴伐利亞州和北萊茵-威斯特法倫州，提出文化景觀結(jié)構(gòu)分類標(biāo)準，界定和描述了州一級的文化景觀區(qū)域，并著重分析了特別重要的內(nèi)部區(qū)域。薩克森州的“文化景觀區(qū)”設(shè)定1 : 300 000的比例尺地圖，并劃定區(qū)域內(nèi)重要的文化景觀類型。

區(qū)域一級的重要研究成果有例如“東部圖林根文化景觀”研究課題[15]。這種局部的研究尤其可以用于描述區(qū)域類型學(xué)和景觀特征，甚至是不同子空間的獨特性，從而確定其進一步發(fā)展的潛力。此研究中，尤其注重區(qū)域性文化景觀的研究在區(qū)域空間規(guī)劃上的應(yīng)用。

在空間層面，首先有必要對景觀發(fā)展的邊界條件進行研究。因此形成了按照收集制圖順序而建立系統(tǒng)框架。這種文化景觀區(qū)域的關(guān)鍵數(shù)據(jù)表述如下：

·自然空間和土壤質(zhì)量；

·政權(quán)、文化和宗教歷史；

·歷史村落和田塊結(jié)構(gòu)；

·歷史土地利用和畜牧業(yè)；

·歷史交通網(wǎng)絡(luò)和產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)；

這些景觀規(guī)劃分析和評估的目的，是在規(guī)劃程序的背景下優(yōu)化考慮有價值的文化景觀及其元素。

4 在區(qū)域和地方背景下的文化景觀的保護、發(fā)展和再利用的理念

由于社會對于全球化過程中的景觀單一化現(xiàn)象的激烈批評，以及民眾對區(qū)域和地方特色的追求，近年來德國有關(guān)文化景觀保護和發(fā)展的公民意識變得越來越強烈。值得強調(diào)的是，《歐洲景觀公約》（ELC）雖然迄今尚未得到德國政府的簽署和批準，但已被鼓勵采取各種舉措來保護和發(fā)展文化景觀。景觀在《歐洲景觀公約》中定義如下：“‘景觀’是指人們所感知的一個區(qū)域，其特征是自然和（或）人為因素的作用和相互作用的結(jié)果?！盵16]

“這個定義反映了景觀隨著時間的推移而演變的觀念，這是自然力量和人文干預(yù)的結(jié)果。它還強調(diào)景觀是一個整體，其自然和文化成分是一起的、不可割裂的?！保ā稓W洲景觀公約》解釋性報告）

于是，近年來德國出現(xiàn)了各種在非正式的規(guī)劃過程中應(yīng)用文化景觀概念來指導(dǎo)規(guī)劃設(shè)計的措施。這些舉措往往達到了提升新的景觀質(zhì)量的目標(biāo)，體現(xiàn)不同的景觀特征，同時也有良好地促進旅游或者地方發(fā)展的意義。這里值得一提的是，一些自然公園中的高品質(zhì)游憩道路、區(qū)域公園線路、文化景觀道路和主題線路等，也體現(xiàn)了旅游與地方發(fā)展的潛力。例如，萊茵-美因區(qū)域公園（Regionalpark Rhein Main)和巴尼姆區(qū)域公園（Regionalpark Barnim，圖5）[17]。這些項目不僅關(guān)注古老的文化遺跡和歷史文化景觀，同時也創(chuàng)造了新的現(xiàn)代高品質(zhì)文化景觀?？梢?，對文化景觀的更高質(zhì)量追求，也一定程度地體現(xiàn)在面向未來的可持續(xù)社會發(fā)展的設(shè)計理念中。

最后要強調(diào)，在生物多樣性保護的背景下，應(yīng)該更加重視保護與生物多樣性相關(guān)聯(lián)的文化景觀要素。通常，文化景觀的歷史發(fā)展過程也在文化景觀多樣性和生物多樣性之間構(gòu)成了非常明顯的聯(lián)系。例如，那些有歷史價值的古樹林（老果園、古樹或老林場）中的枯木是眾多小型生物棲息地，同樣一些歷史性的葡萄園擋土墻也是砂巖蜥蜴等巖生動物的理想生存場所。因此，面向未來的有積極意義的文化景觀開發(fā)也有助于“原地”保護生物多樣性[18]。應(yīng)該認識到，除了自然因素之外，各種文化和歷史因素對于景觀多樣性的積極意義也不再是新的概念了。

然而，由于對這些地區(qū)的支持資金普遍不足，保護區(qū)內(nèi)的歷史文化景觀形式（例如耕地或果園）的保護受到限制。這也強調(diào)了文化再利用作為保護的先決條件的重要性。歷史城堡建筑、歷史牧場、歷史園林或游憩地等歷史文化景觀要素都可以根據(jù)其特殊的文化價值，變?yōu)榻裉飕F(xiàn)代生活所需要的使用功能。例如，德國隨處可見的歷史建筑可以改變原有功能，成為商業(yè)建筑或者住宅來使用，一些歷史草甸和草場變成風(fēng)景區(qū)內(nèi)景觀保護地而同時又是可以歇耕的風(fēng)景草地，一些歷史街區(qū)甚至整個小鎮(zhèn)，也可以根據(jù)當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟發(fā)展的需要，在當(dāng)?shù)鼐用裆钚枰幕A(chǔ)上引入新的使用價值。而所有的這些“再利用”的前提，是對當(dāng)?shù)氐奈幕坝^有深入的了解和足夠的保護。

在此需要強調(diào)，對文化景觀保護的一個先決條件，是將區(qū)域當(dāng)?shù)氐拿癖妳⑴c納入對文化景觀保護的內(nèi)涵之中。當(dāng)?shù)孛癖娨獙Ω髯晕幕瘏^(qū)域背景，包括其具體的特征和品質(zhì)，具備足夠的了解和認知。最好邀請那些對當(dāng)?shù)氐臍v史性或當(dāng)代性的文化景觀要素具有較好的體驗和感知能力的人，來對文化景觀要素進行識別。如果能夠通過這樣的公共參與和地方文化景觀知識普及教育，那么，就可以為那些依然存在的并不斷持續(xù)發(fā)展的文化景觀提供最佳的保護先決條件[19]（圖6）。

5 結(jié)論

文化景觀研究是一項跨學(xué)科的任務(wù)，其中規(guī)劃者在區(qū)域背景下的能力可以發(fā)揮核心作用。對文化景觀的優(yōu)化、保護和設(shè)計方面所進行的努力，既不能否認也不能隱藏其文化和經(jīng)濟方面的內(nèi)涵。文化景觀越來越成為研究的焦點，多樣化文化景觀的存在緩解了地球上許多地區(qū)景觀均值化現(xiàn)象。這樣景觀均值化的過程不僅伴隨著生物多樣性和生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的喪失，也伴隨著文化多樣性、經(jīng)濟認知、故鄉(xiāng)歸屬感和文化身份等多方面的價值流失。因此，基于對人類文化過程認知的歷史文化景觀概念的理解，風(fēng)景園林專業(yè)的任務(wù)不僅是要對過去的文化景觀進行保護和培育，還要有創(chuàng)造性地促進未來文化景觀的可持續(xù)發(fā)展。

（本文以作者在2018世界風(fēng)景園林師高峰講壇上的發(fā)言稿為基礎(chǔ)進行補充。）

注釋：

① 拉丁語的詞根“文化”（cultura）就指“加工，維修和耕作”。

② via regia最早始于8世紀，從西班牙的圣地亞哥（Santiago de Compostela）通往俄羅斯，是貫穿歐洲的一條重要的中世紀商貿(mào)道路。

圖表來源：

圖1、6 由伊爾可·馬紹爾拍攝；圖2來自圖林根州發(fā)展規(guī)劃廳；圖3來自http://www.kulturlandschaft.fh-erfurt.de/index.php?id=9；圖4來自http://www.kulturlandschaft.fherfurt.de；圖5 Planungsverbund Ballungsraum Frankfurt/Rhein-Main；表1、2引自參考文獻[13]77頁。

Triggered by an excessively one-sided view of landscape in the context of nature conservation and landscape planning as an ecosystem, in the end of the 1980s the re-examination of the landscapes with regard to their cultural origins and develops in Germany, as traditionally being described and also represented by geography.

Not least of all, the recognition that the“diversity, peculiarity and beauty of nature and landscape” — an important protected asset in German nature conservation legislation[1]— has been significantly influenced by cultural factors has led to a rethinking of nature conservation. On the other hand, landscape architecture has also increasingly recognized it as a task to strengthen the social interest in landscape and homeland and to make important contributions to the quality of life of people living in different regions. This concern has been strengthened in Europe not least by the European Landscape Convention[2]and it is currently being addressed in Germany both by the landscape architecture and planning as well as by the state spatial planning and preservation. Thus,the preservation and development of cultural landscapes in Germany became an important and interdisciplinary task.

The research group of cultural landscape at the FH Erfurt in Thuringia took up the tasks of cultural landscape research quite early. For about 15 years, quite intensive research has been carried out on the history, recording and planning development of the Thuringian cultural landscapes.At the same time, the cultural landscape was included as an educational object in the master program of the landscape architecture degree program. The following article gives an overview of the conceptual understanding of cultural landscape research in Germany and uses regional research in Thuringia as an example.

1 Cultural Landscape as a System and Concept

The cultural landscape that can be found almost everywhere in Europe is the result of cultural trace of natural spaces through human activities.Historically, the sedentarization of human beings in the Neolithic can be described as the starting point of cultural landscape development. In Rodungsinseln,an early settlement and tombs, and the influence of the surrounding forest by pastoral economy and animal husbandry, here are just as evidence and evidence of agriculture on the arable fertile (loess)soils. Gradually landscape was transformed by human cultural achievement①. The further human settlement and cultural development resulted in increasingly differentiated land use systems. Coppice and woodland developed as pasture and farming systems,which were optimized in their use and fertility.These were partly characterized by technology (e.g.,ditch, terrace, and irrigation system), partly by social regulations (Lord economy, and Land reform) and power structures[3], which led to a maximum of landscape and biodiversity in Europe in the mid to late 19th century.

As a result of societal developments and under the influence of often complex land use,landscape elements have been created that still characterize the diversity, peculiarity and beauty of landscapes. These include castles as well as e.g.historic-ditches (Fig.1). Other agricultural cultural features often characterized by impressive cultural and technical performance include e.g. Vineyard walls, rafting canals or systems of water meadows as a result of the constant effort to optimize the use of natural resources[4]. Today, these not only shape the “diversity, peculiarity and beauty” of the landscape, but also contribute significantly to their biodiversity and are still synonymous with the interplay of cultural and natural factors.

As stated above, landscape is cultural landscape and vice versa. In this way, cultural landscapes in their many forms are actually everyday objects of observation and action in landscape architecture and planning. Nevertheless,the term cultural landscape usually refers to special culture-related quality features of landscape spaces.Therefore, the cultural landscape concept has an added value compared to the term landscape, a positive connotation[5-6].

In this context, rich or particularly valuable cultural landscapes are those in which historical human activities have left behind certain valued components and traces, and which are therefore particularly diverse or characteristic.

In this sense, cultural landscape is defined as system and concept: “Kulturlandschaft als der vom Menschen nach seinen existentiellen gesellschaftlichen, wirtschaftlichen und kulturell?sthetischen Bedürfnissen eingerichtete und angepasste Naturraum, der im Laufe der Zeit mit zunehmender Dynamik entstanden ist und weiterhin in der Folge wird”, and “Dabei werden die kulturellen Kodierung von R?umen in der Vergangenheit sowie der Steuerung von Prozessen in der Gegenwart, die r?umliche Qualit?ten stiften und somit Potenziale für eine nachhaltige Regional entwicklung aufzeigen.”[7]

2 Cultural Landscape Research in Thuringia

2.1 The State of Thuringia as a Research Area

The State of Thuringia is geographically located approximately in the middle of Germany and centrally in Europe. Thuringia has maintained cultural relations in all aspects for millennia thanks to its location advantage. It is one of the oldest settlement areas in Germany (for example, the site of Homo erectus in Bilzingsleben, dated back to 400,000 years ago). Important archaeological sites from the Neolithic and Bronze Age are testimony to the fact that the Thuringian loess basin with its fertile farmland was a cultural and economic center very early on. Since the Middle Ages, the abundance of wood and ores of the Thuringian Mittelgebirge have become increasingly important location factors. The raw materials promoted the trade relations and therefore its integration into the still existing supraregional road network. Especially Erfurt benefited from this traffic advantages.The capital of Thuringia, which was one of the urban centers in the Middle Ages, lay on the “Via regia”②.

3 結(jié)合KLEKs系統(tǒng)的圖林根文化景觀網(wǎng)Thuringian Cultural Landscape Network combined with KLEKs system

4 埃爾夫特應(yīng)用科技大學(xué)文化景觀研究組迄今為止編輯出版的4卷的《圖林根文化景觀》工作手冊Four volumes of the worksheet Kulturlandschaft Thüginen Arbeitsheft edited and published by the Cultural Landscape Research Group of the University of Applied Sciences Erfurt

This obvious diversity of different cultural landscape spaces was a reason to systematically and profoundly explore the cultural landscape of Thuringia. Another reason was that many of the inconspicuous objects of the historic cultural landscape threatened to disappear after decades of neglect in GDR times after the political and economic changes and the accompanying rapid change in landscape after the “reunification” of the 1990s. On the other hand, in contrast to the decades economically prosperous areas of West Germany, they were able to survive the dynamic developments of the 20th century in GDR often unscathed — and are still persistent in many landscapes to this day. Since you can only protect what you know and even at the beginning of the 2000s there was no inventory of the cultural landscape in Thuringia, a baseline recording and documentation of what still exists, started at the University of Applied Sciences Erfurt in the framework of a research team since then (Fig.2).

2.2 Cultural Landscape Research as an Educational Project at the FH Erfurt

Since 2003, the research group of cultural landscape at the University of Applied Sciences Erfurt under the direction of Prof. Dr. Catrin Schmidt (until 2007, today University of Dresden),Prof. Dr. Ilke Marschall (since 2009) and Prof.Dr. Hans-Heinrich Meyer conducted research with cultural landscape topic. The main focus of the work initially was the development of methodological as well as content-related basics for the collection, documentation and evaluation of historical cultural landscape elements and the delimitation of exemplary cultural landscape areas in Thuringia.

Since 2012, students in landscape architecture at the University of Applied Sciences Erfurt(FH Erfurt) have been increasingly inspired to undertake cultural and landscape studies as part of their theses. Based on a basic lecture on cultural landscape history, a seminar module will impart knowledge on the mapping and recording of historical cultural landscape elements. The Thuringian “cultural landscape portal” (www.kulturlandschaft.fh-erfurt.de, Fig. 3), developed at the FHE in the past 10 years, which cooperates closely with the “Kulturlandschaftswikipedia”KLEKs[8]developed at Neubrandenburg University,serves as an entrance portal for the presentation as the results of Thuringian cultural landscape research to date[9].

This work led to a four-volume series called“Kulturlandschaft Thüringen”, which could benefit a broad circle of users who want to refer to the cultural landscape development of Thuringia in their own research, planning and projects (Fig. 4).This consists of two sources and methodsvolumes with information and others for disposal, on the use and meaningful results of historical maps, of landscape paintings and other pictorial representations as well as of Thuringian sagas and legends. It also contains suggestions for the collection and evaluation of cultural landscapes as well as possible planning approaches and project proposals at regional and municipal level.Two text and map volumes also address selected cultural landscape elements that can lead to a spatial differentiation or imprint visible on the landscape at the national level. Content is here e.g. historic settlements and buildings, historic building materials and natural stone landscapes,patio corridors, historical and current winegrowing,orchards, cultivation of wood, herbal cultivation,historical and current pasture landscape, historical forest uses, traffic routes and water uses, historic windmills and watermills, mining districts.An epochal outline of the cultural landscape development of Thuringia from prehistoric times to the present day was also developed[10].

Currently, a Cultural Landscape Atlas Thuringia is being developed by the Erfurt cultural landscape team, which will present the qualities and peculiarities of the historical and current cultural landscapes in Thuringia in an explanatory map book, making them available for planning processes.A further goal is the elaboration of a culturallandscape-spatial structure and the designation of important cultural landscapes of special character for better preservation in the spatial planning.

3 Cultural Landscape in the Context of Landscape Planning — Working Methods

According to theFederal Nature Conservation Actas well as in the diverse range of tasks of landscape planning “in the broader sense”,landscapes and therewith cultural landscapes have to be analyzed and assessed in the context of the comprehensive analysis of nature and landscape as a task of landscape planning. The usual approach is the analysis and evaluation with regard to individual functions or protected objects. A uniform or even standardized practice currently does not exist in the differentiated field of professional practice. First of all, it has to be discussed in which way cultural landscapes or their elements can fundamentally be recorded and assessed. Schmidt[10]name the possibility of recording the “documentation function” as well as the “identity function”, which enables people to “identify” with the landscape.

3.1 Element or Object Based Capture

In this context, demands for inventories of historical cultural landscapes and elements have increased since the 1990s. In practice, there is a concentration on the recording and mapping of the characteristic formative or particularly typical historical cultural landscape elements. A first method of recording and evaluating cultural landscape elements that were not included in a list of monuments was developed by Gunzelmann.W?bse (1994) published a guideline for the standardized recording of cultural historical elements. Prerequisite is first a precise definition of the subject. In practice, the monument preservation definition of the subcommittee of the State Heritage Conservation Conference of 2001/2003 is used again and again: “Elements and structures of a cultural landscape are historical if they are no longer in the present time for economic, social,political or aesthetic reasons existing or would be created or continued, In other words, they come from a completed historical epoch.”[11]

Mapping guides provide important guidance here[12-13]. In this context, catalogs and glossaries set up within the context of the KLEK or the cultural landscape portal Thuringia should also be mentioned. In the system of cultural landscape inventories, it is common to classify historical cultural landscape elements to different (varying)functional areas. Table 1 presents an incomplete selection of typical historical cultural landscape elements. The emphasis has been placed on elements normally not covered by state preservation.

在風(fēng)格鮮明的功能顯示背后是專為Project Z12腕表研發(fā)的全新HW3306自動上鏈機心，可提供長達68 小時動力儲存，配備硅材質(zhì)擺輪游絲。通過品牌標(biāo)志性白18K金材質(zhì)鏤空擺陀上鏈，彰顯海瑞溫斯頓一貫的高品質(zhì)標(biāo)準。

The elements listed here are generally evidence of an intensive use of local resources of the specifically landscape spaces in the specifically epoch in the context of the prevailing social conditions. At the same time they are an expression of cultural needs, local architecture and craftsmanship. Büttner[14]developed an object-oriented and user-independent evaluation procedure for the evaluation of historical cultural landscape elements, which emphasizes the historical testimony with the value as a special evaluation criterion (Tab. 1-2).

Despite this objectified procedure, however,it can not be excluded in practice that people with different Value, will come to different cognizance and classifications of the objects. This also results from the fact that with regard to judgment, of for example the historical testimony value, considerable and specific knowledge, in particular from the field of archeology, historic preservation or cultural anthropology, is required, which is not only related to prehistoric relics of the cultural landscape.The meaning of in dividual elements often only becomes apparent in connection with others. Thus,in the planning context, it is always necessary to classify and possibly aggregate individual elements.This may also be important in the context of the formation and assessment of cultural landscape spaces. Cultural landscape is more than the sum of its individual parts.

3.2 Research Levels of Cultural Landscape Spaces

In principle, the analysis of cultural landscape spaces at the level of countries or regions should be distinguished from the local level. Büttner differentiates between four relevant examination or observation levels[13]70:

1) Frame level: Determination of the natural and cultural landscape basics of the study area and thus of the “l(fā)andscape-defining impact factors”.A division into different phases of landscape development is useful. A presentment is usually made here in the form of a report text.

2) Object level: collection and evaluation of historical cultural landscape elements; integration in a database and in a geographic information system(GIS). A presentment is made in the form of a map or several map sheets.

3) Space level: description, demarcation and evaluation of cultural landscape spaces(overall view). A presentment is made with space description and in the “map of the cultural landscape spaces”.

4) Formulation of general objectives and guidelines and planning proposals.

In these years, Germany’s first nationwide cultural landscape analyzes are now available. For example, for Bavaria and North Rhine-Westphalia cultural landscape structures were presented that delimit and describe cultural landscape areas at the state level and highlight particularly important areas. In Saxony “cultural landscape areas” in the scale of 1:300,000 have been delineated and the land significant cultural landscape types were also designated.

5 法蘭克福萊茵河區(qū)域公園Regional Park Rhein5-1 法蘭克福的萊茵河區(qū)域公園的文化景觀空間要素Element of Regional Park Rhein in Frankfurt/M5-2 法蘭克福的萊茵河區(qū)域公園的地圖Map of Regional Park Rhein in Frankfurt/M

Important research results at the regional level were able to be achieved, amongst others in the research project “Cultural Landscape Eastern Thuringia”[15]. Such supra-local analyzes can serve,in particular, to describe the regional typology or landscape characteristic or even the distinctiveness of different subspaces and thus to identify potentials for their further development. The regional research results can especially benefit for the regional spatial planning.

At the local level, it is also advisable to firstly carry out a search regarding the boundary conditions of the landscape development. This thus forms the framework in which the elements mapped in sequence are to be mounted. Important key data of such cultural landscape description is information on:

· natural space and soil quality,

· history, settlement and church history,

· historical village and structure in open fields.,

· historical land use and livestock,

· historical transport network and commercial structure.

The aim of these landscape planning analyzes and evaluations is the optimized consideration of valuable cultural landscapes and their elements in the context of planning procedures.

4 Concepts for the Protection, Development and Reuse of Cultural Landscapes in a Regional and Local Context

As a result of socially increasingly criticized processes of the homogenous and globalized landscapes as well as the augumented search for regional and local identity, civic concepts for the protection and development of cultural landscapes in Germany have been amplified in recent years.Last but not least, theEuropean Landscape Convention(ELC) encouraged various initiatives to protect and develop cultural landscapes, even though it has not been signed and ratified by the German government until today. Landscape is defined in the ELC as follows: “Landscape ‘means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors.”[16](ELC Art. 1).

“This definition reflects the idea that landscapes evolve through time, as a result of being acted upon by natural forces and human beings. It also forms a whole, with which natural and cultural components are taken together, not separately. ” (Explanatory report).

Thus, in recent years, a large number of informal planning processes and cultural landscape initiatives have sprung up in Germany, many of which formulate new quality objectives for landscapes and also added their tourism value as their goal. To mention here are e.g. Premium hiking trails, quality for nature parks, regional park routes, cultural landscape routes and themed cycle paths, which point out the special qualities of the respective landscapes and at the same time turn them into an estate of higher tourist or location political value (for example Regional Park Rhein Main, Regional Park Barnim, Fig. 5)[17]. In this case,not only the relics of the old cultural landscape or places steeped in history will be given more attention, but at the same time new, modern quality cultural landscapes will emerge all over Germany.Thus, the quest for more quality in the cultural landscape will be expressed partly in future-oriented design concepts committed to a sustainable social development.

6 圖林根州文化景觀研究小組與當(dāng)?shù)貙＜以贐echstedt村進行討論The Thuringian Cultural Landscape Research Group and local experts in discussion in the Village of Bechstedt

Last but not least, in the context of biodiversity protection, increased attention should be paid to both preserved and new cultural landscape elements. Often, the history of the cultural landscape also reveals very obvious connection between cultural landscape diversity and biodiversity. This applies, for example for the suitability of historical old trees or walls. Active and future-oriented cultural landscape development thus also serves to protect biodiversity “in situ”[18].There by the realization that in addition to nature,above all the respective culture contributes to the biodiversity of landscapes in a positive sense is not new.

However, the preservation of historical cultural landscape forms (for example, arable land or orchards) within protected areas is limited due to the generally inadequate funding for the care of the areas. This brings the importance of cultural use as a concrete prerequisite for preservation back into focus. Historical cultural landscape such as historic castle buildings, historic pastures and meadow,historic gardens or nature reserve areas can be based on their special cultural values transformed into the other functions required for modern life today. For example, historic buildings that can be seen everywhere in Germany can change their original functions and become commercial or residential.. Some historic meadows and pastures have become landscape conservation areas in the scenic area, while at the same time it can be using as landscaped grasslands. Based on the needs of local residents can also have some historic residents their new uses and values. The premise of all these“reuses” is to have an in-depth understanding of the local cultural landscape and adequate protection with the culture value.

The inclusion of the regional and local populace in cultural landscape protection is therefore a key prerequisite for their preservation.The prerequisite here also includes the knowledge and appreciation of the particular cultural biotopes, including their specific characteristics and qualities. In the best case, this will lead to an active identification of people with the historical or (just)current cultural landscape element. If this succeeds,this is the best precondition for the persistent preservation of cultural landscape elements within the framework of a then continuously vibrant cultural landscape (Fig. 6)[19].

5 Conclusion

The protection of cultural landscapes is an interdisciplinary task, in which the competence of planners in a regional context can play a central role. Efforts to optimize, preserve and design landscape should and can neither deny nor hide cultural and economic references. On the one hand(culture) landscapes are becoming increasingly the subject of research, they reliave in many areas the situation of more or less uniform landscapes. This is not only accompanied by a loss of biodiversity and eco systems services, but also a loss of cultural diversity, economic knowledge, homeland connectivity and human identity. The awareness of the cultural richness and the cultural genesis of historical landscapes thus includes landscape architecture into the task not only to protect and nurture, but also to creatively and creatively contribute also to the sustainable development of the future cultural landscape.

(This paper is revised on the basis of the speech delivered by the author at the International Landscape Architecture Symposium in 2018.)

Notes:

① In the sense of lat. “cultura”: cultivation, care, agriculture.② The “Royal Street” or “High Street”, a very early (probably from the 8th century) established and important trade route across Europe, which stretched from Spain (Santiago de Compostela) to Russia.

Sources of Figures and Tables:

Fig.1, 6 ? Marschall; Fig. 2 ? Thuringian State Development Planning Agency; Fig.3 from http://www.kulturlandschaft.fh-erfurt.de/index.php?id=9; Fig.4 from http://www.kulturlandschaft.fh-erfurt.de; Fig.5 ? Planungsverbund Ballungsraum Frankfurt/Rhein-Main; Tab.1-2 ? reference [13]page 77.