早期欺負(fù)行為的影響因素及干預(yù)的原理和實踐

黃翯青 劉肖岑 張 菁

欺負(fù)是對他人有意圖的、反復(fù)的傷害，是攻擊的一種形式。[注]Saracho, O. N. Bullying: Young children’s roles, social status, and prevention programs. Early Child Development & Care, 2016, 187(1): 1-12.由于欺負(fù)行為在青少年時期最為嚴(yán)重，目前對欺負(fù)的干預(yù)研究主要集中在這一時期。[注]Pouwels, J. L., Salmivalli, C., Saarento, S., van den Berg, Y. H., Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. Predicting adolescents’ bullying participation from developmental trajectories of social status and behavior. Child Development, 2017, 89(4)：1-20.但很多研究者指出應(yīng)當(dāng)盡早實施對欺負(fù)行為的干預(yù)，[注]③ Fekkes, M., Pijpers, F. I., & Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P. Bullying: who does what, when and where? Involvement of children, teachers and parents in bullying behavior. Health Education Research, 2005, 20(1): 81-91.④ Kirves, L., & Sajaniemi, N. Bullying in early educational settings. Early Child Development & Care, 2012, 182(3-4): 383-400.⑤ Levine, E., & Tamburrino, M. Bullying among young children: Strategies for prevention. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2014, 42(4): 271-278.⑥ Saracho, O. N. Bullying: Young children’s roles, social status, and prevention programs. Early Child Development & Care, 2016, 187(1): 1-12.這不僅非常必要，也是可行的。一方面，盡早對欺負(fù)問題進(jìn)行干預(yù)能夠避免兒童長期受到欺負(fù)問題的消極影響；[注]Copeland, W. E., Wolke, D., Angold, A., & Costello, E. Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adolescence. Jama Psychiatry, 2013, 70(4): 419-426.[注]Lereya, S. T., Winsper, C., Heron, J., Lewis, G., Gunnell, D., Fisher, H. L., & Wolke, D. Being bullied during childhood and the prospective pathways to self-harm in late adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2013, 52(6): 608-618.另一方面，早期干預(yù)是可行的、甚至是更為有效的。大量基礎(chǔ)研究揭示出多方面的早期發(fā)展指標(biāo)都能預(yù)測兒童之后的欺負(fù)行為，可以從這些因素入手對欺負(fù)行為進(jìn)行干預(yù)。這些干預(yù)項目對于欺負(fù)和受欺負(fù)現(xiàn)象都具有一定的作用。[注]Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 2011, 7(1): 27-56.甚至有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，幼兒期似乎是某些因素影響欺負(fù)行為的關(guān)鍵時期，[注]Hall, W. J. Initial development and validation of the bullyharm: the bullying, harassment, and aggression receipt measure. Psychology in the Schools, 2016, 53(9): 984-1000.[注]W. T. Social dominance, school bullying, and child health: What are our ethical obligations to the very young?. Pediatrics, 2015, 135 (suppl. 2): 24-30.很可能在幼兒期干預(yù)欺負(fù)效果要好于青春期。[注]Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Smith, V., Zaidman-Zait, A., & Hertzman, C. Promoting children’s prosocial behaviors in school: Impact of the “roots of empathy” program on the social and emotional competence of school-aged children. School Mental Health, 2012, 4(1): 1-21.

目前針對欺負(fù)行為的早期干預(yù)方興未艾，但比較突出的一個問題是，對欺負(fù)行為機(jī)制的研究和干預(yù)的實踐基本在兩條軌道上運行。一方面大部分干預(yù)項目主要從經(jīng)驗出發(fā)，僅有少數(shù)干預(yù)研究從欺負(fù)的潛在影響因素出發(fā)進(jìn)行設(shè)計；另一方面不少理論性的研究專注于對欺負(fù)的影響因素及作用機(jī)制的探討，而對于如何從這些因素出發(fā)進(jìn)一步設(shè)計和實施干預(yù)項目則缺乏關(guān)注。本文試圖通過梳理早期欺負(fù)行為的有關(guān)影響因素和作用機(jī)制，一方面從對影響機(jī)制的理論性探討的研究中抽取干預(yù)的要素，另一方面從一些成功的干預(yù)研究中反推有關(guān)影響因素的作用，從而嘗試建立從機(jī)制研究到干預(yù)項目之間的橋梁。

一、早期欺負(fù)行為的特點及影響

(一)早期欺負(fù)行為的特點

關(guān)于欺負(fù)行為的發(fā)展起源是有爭論的。3-5歲的幼兒間一般的攻擊行為非常頻繁，顯著高于其他發(fā)展階段，但早期研究者們認(rèn)為這些攻擊行為時間相對短暫，角色也不固定，帶有較大偶然因素，不算真正意義上的欺負(fù)。[注]Hanish, L. G., & Guerra, N. G. Aggressive victims, passive victims, and bullies: Developmental continuity or developmental change?. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2004, 50(50): 17-38.但最近的研究則發(fā)現(xiàn)，4歲兒童中就有比較穩(wěn)定的欺負(fù)者和被欺負(fù)者了，[注]Monks, C. P., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. Psychological correlates of peer victimisation in preschool: Social cognitive skills, executive function and attachment profiles. Aggressive Behavior, 2010, 31(6): 571-588.幼兒當(dāng)中攻擊和欺負(fù)行為已經(jīng)比較普遍。[注]Alsaker, F. D., & Nagele, C. Bullying in kindergarten and prevention. Journal of Neurological Surgery Part A Central European Neurosurgery, 2008, 75(5): 365-370.[注]Vlachou, M., Botsoglou, K., & Andreou, E. Assessing bully/victim problems in preschool children: A multimethod approach. Journal of Criminology, 2013, 2013(2013): 951-968.

幼兒中已經(jīng)存在多種類型的欺負(fù)形式。幼兒的欺負(fù)最初以直接的方式表現(xiàn)，以身體欺負(fù)和語言欺負(fù)更為常見，[注]Shahaeian, A., Razmjoee, M., Wang, C., Elliott, S. N., & Hughes, C. Understanding relational aggression during early childhood: an examination of the association with language and other social and cognitive skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2017, 40(3): 204-214.兒童3歲的時候達(dá)到頂點，在5歲的時候則隨著兒童語言能力、觀點采擇和情緒調(diào)節(jié)能力的發(fā)展呈現(xiàn)下降趨勢。[注]Fekkes, M., Pijpers, F. I., & Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P. Bullying: who does what, when and where? Involvement of children, teachers and parents in bullying behavior. Health Education Research, 2005, 20(1): 81-91.隨著兒童的發(fā)展，更加隱蔽和巧妙的關(guān)系欺負(fù)也逐漸出現(xiàn)并呈現(xiàn)增長的趨勢。[注]Olweus, D., & Limber, S. Olweus bullying prevention program: Teacher guide. Center City, MN: Hazelden, 2007.[注]Swit, C., & Mcmaugh, A. Relational aggression and prosocial behaviours in australian preschool children. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 2012, 37(3): 30-34.Shahaeian等人發(fā)現(xiàn)3歲的幼兒已經(jīng)能夠進(jìn)行簡單的關(guān)系攻擊。[注]Shahaeian, A., Razmjoee, M., Wang, C., Elliott, S. N., & Hughes, C. Understanding relational aggression during early childhood: an examination of the association with language and other social and cognitive skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2017, 40(3): 204-214.早期的欺負(fù)行為已經(jīng)具有顯著的性別差異。女孩往往報告更多的學(xué)校的欺負(fù)，而男孩更傾向于報告家庭中兄弟姐妹的欺負(fù)；男孩更傾向于使用身體攻擊，而女孩傾向于使用關(guān)系攻擊。[注]Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., & Kawabata, Y. Relational aggression and gender: An overview. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

(二)早期欺負(fù)行為的消極影響

欺負(fù)行為對于欺負(fù)者和被欺負(fù)者以及旁觀者都會造成傷害，引發(fā)其認(rèn)知、情感和心理健康等多方面的問題，[注]Pouwels, J. L., Salmivalli, C., Saarento, S., van den Berg, Y. H., Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. Predicting adolescents’ bullying participation from developmental trajectories of social status and behavior. Child Development, 2017, 1-20.[注]Halpern, J., Jutte, D., Colby, J., & Boyce, W. T. Social dominance, school bullying, and child health: What are our ethical obligations to the very young?. Pediatrics, 2015, 135 (suppl. 2): 24-30.早期欺負(fù)行為對兒童發(fā)展更具消極影響。

首先，早期欺負(fù)行為對于未來的欺負(fù)行為具有較強的預(yù)測性。[注]Levine, E., & Tamburrino, M. Bullying among young children: Strategies for prevention. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2014, 42(4): 271-278.常常遭受欺負(fù)的幼兒在學(xué)齡早期也容易受欺負(fù)；[注]Kirves, L., & Sajaniemi, N. Bullying in early educational settings. Early Child Development & Care, 2012, 182(3-4): 383-400.此外，幼兒時期，個體的欺負(fù)或者被欺負(fù)情況還可以預(yù)測兒童中期、青少年期甚至成年之后的欺負(fù)行為。[注]Min, J. K., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Abbott, R. D. Bullying at elementary school and problem behavior in young adulthood: a study of bullying, violence, and substance use from age 11 to age 21. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 2011, 21(2): 136-144.

其次，早期發(fā)生的欺負(fù)行為更有可能引發(fā)后期的心理問題。[注]Camodeca, M., Caravita, S. C., & Coppola, G. Bullying in preschool: The associations between participant roles, social competence, and social preference. Aggressive Behavior, 2014, 41(4): 310-321.如，受欺負(fù)的幼兒長大后往往有低自尊、抑郁、焦慮和自傷性思維等問題，[注]Malecki, C., Demaray, M. K., Coyle, S., Geosling, R., Rueger, S. Y., Rueger Wheaton College, … Dekalb, B. Frequency, power differential, and intentionality and the relationship to anxiety, depression, and self-esteem for victims of bullying. Child & Youth Care Forum, 2015, 44 (1): 115-131.難以建立自己的領(lǐng)地范圍(limits)并有效保護(hù)自己。[注]陳光輝：《兒童欺負(fù)/受欺負(fù)與同伴網(wǎng)絡(luò)的關(guān)系:p*模型分析》，《心理發(fā)展與教育》 2014年第5期，第474-481頁。欺負(fù)者也有較高的心理風(fēng)險，他們往往具有更多的消極行為，[注]Verlinden, M., Jansen, P. W., Veenstra, R., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., … Tiemeier, H. Preschool attention deficit/hyperactivity and oppositional defiant problems as antecedents of school bullying. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2015, 54(7): 571-579.未來有更高的反社會性和犯罪行為。[注]Min, J. K., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Abbott, R. D. Bullying at elementary school and problem behavior in young adulthood: a study of bullying, violence, and substance use from age 11 to age 21. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 2011, 21(2): 136-144.尤其是那些既受欺負(fù)又實施欺負(fù)的兒童具有最強的攻擊性和破壞性，[注]Salmivalli, C. Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 2010, 15(2): 112-120.他們往往有多種心理病理行為，[注]Kim, Y. S., Leventhal, B. L., Koh, Y. J., Hubbard, A., & Boyce, W. T. School bullying and youth violence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2006, 63(9): 1035-1041.卷入欺負(fù)的時間最長，且在之后的發(fā)展階段中更容易被同伴拒絕。[注]Sourander, A., Gyllenberg, D., Brunstein, K. A., Sillanm?ki, L., Llola, A. M., & Kumpulainen, K. Association of bullying behavior at 8 years of age and use of specialized services for psychiatric disorders by 29 years of age. Jama Psychiatry, 2015, 73(2): 159.[注]Benedict, F. T., Vivier, P. M., & Gjelsvik, A. Mental health and bullying in the United States among children aged 6 to 17 years. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2015, 30(5): 782-795.

早期欺負(fù)行為是非常復(fù)雜的，既受到個體自身特點的影響，也受環(huán)境因素的影響。我們將從個體和環(huán)境兩個視角入手，分析這些因素是如何影響到個體的欺負(fù)行為，并介紹有關(guān)的欺負(fù)干預(yù)項目。

二、個體因素對早期欺負(fù)行為的影響及干預(yù)方案

不論是欺負(fù)者還是被欺負(fù)者都有一些自身特征，已有研究從行為層面、認(rèn)知層面、情緒反應(yīng)三個方面探討了個體自身與欺負(fù)行為有關(guān)的因素，并揭示了這些影響因素的作用機(jī)制，這些研究對于欺負(fù)的干預(yù)實踐具有重要的啟示。

(一)行為層面的因素

欺負(fù)者和被欺負(fù)者都具有明顯的行為特征。

一方面，行為問題和幼兒欺負(fù)卷入之間有密切的關(guān)系，尤其是多動和對立違抗性(oppositional defiant disorder)等問題行為能夠顯著地預(yù)測幼兒卷入欺負(fù)行為。Verlinden等人的大數(shù)據(jù)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，3歲幼兒的多動行為和違抗對立行為的水平均和兒童學(xué)齡后成為欺負(fù)者或者欺負(fù)-受欺負(fù)者的幾率有顯著正相關(guān)。[注]Verlinden, M., Jansen, P. W., Veenstra, R., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., … Tiemeier, H. Preschool attention deficit/hyperactivity and oppositional defiant problems as antecedents of school bullying. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2015, 54(7): 571-579.幼兒的問題行為會在很大程度上對環(huán)境秩序造成破壞或者騷擾和影響他人，這很可能直接激怒他人從而引起他人的攻擊，或者引發(fā)家長、同伴和教師等人的負(fù)反饋，從而增加兒童之后對欺負(fù)行為的易感性。[注]Verlinden, M., Jansen, P. W., Veenstra, R., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., … Tiemeier, H. Preschool attention deficit/hyperactivity and oppositional defiant problems as antecedents of school bullying. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2015, 54(7): 571-579.這些結(jié)果提示那些有行為問題的兒童是欺負(fù)行為的高危對象，他們有更高的實施欺負(fù)和被欺負(fù)的傾向，因此在預(yù)防和干預(yù)項目中應(yīng)當(dāng)給予其更多的關(guān)注。此外，父母和幼兒教師都應(yīng)重視幼兒早期表現(xiàn)出來的問題行為并進(jìn)行合理干預(yù)。

另一方面，研究指出，不論是對于欺負(fù)兒童還是被欺負(fù)兒童，親社會行為都是一個重要的保護(hù)性因素。首先，很多干預(yù)項目通過培養(yǎng)個體的親社會行為來抑制其欺負(fù)行為。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)幼兒的關(guān)系攻擊和親社會行為之間有顯著負(fù)相關(guān)。[注]Swit, C., & Mcmaugh, A. Relational aggression and prosocial behaviours in australian preschool children. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 2012, 37(3): 30-34.[注]Farina, E., & Belacchi, C. The relationship between emotional competence and hostile/prosocial behavior in albanian preschoolers: An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 2014, 35(5): 475-484.根據(jù)演化心理學(xué)的觀點，欺負(fù)行為本質(zhì)上是個體實現(xiàn)生存目標(biāo)的策略，如通過欺負(fù)行為獲得物質(zhì)資源和群體地位。因此，很多干預(yù)研究試圖通過培養(yǎng)親社會行為來替代欺負(fù)行為，以此干預(yù)和降低欺負(fù)行為。[注]Ellis, B. J., Volk, A. A., Gonzalez, J. M., & Embry, D. D. The meaningful roles intervention: An evolutionary approach to reducing bullying and increasing prosocial behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2016, 26(4): 1-16.此外，還有一些干預(yù)項目通過培養(yǎng)兒童的親社會行為來保護(hù)受欺負(fù)者。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，那些親社會的兒童往往較少受到同伴的拒絕。[注]Ellis, B. J., Volk, A. A., Gonzalez, J. M., & Embry, D. D. The meaningful roles intervention: An evolutionary approach to reducing bullying and increasing prosocial behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2016, 26(4): 1-16.這可能是因為親社會行為能促進(jìn)同伴間的積極互動，提升個體的同伴接納，因此親社會行為是抵抗同伴拒絕的保護(hù)性因素，能夠幫助兒童在同伴中建立社會地位。[注]Wang, C., Couch, L., Rodriguez, G. R., & Lee, C. The bullying literature project: Using children’s literature to promote prosocial behavior and social-emotional outcomes among elementary school students. Contemporary School Psychology, 2015, 19(4): 320-329.

其中“和平建設(shè)者的表揚貼士”項目[注]Embry, D. D., Flannery, D. J., Vazsonyi, A. T., Powell, K. E., & Atha, H. Peacebuilders: A theoretically driven, school-based model for early violence prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 1996, 12(Suppl. 5): 91-100.(Peace Builders’ Praise Notes Project)和有意義角色項目[注]Ellis, B. J., Volk, A. A., Gonzalez, J. M., & Embry, D. D. The meaningful roles intervention: An evolutionary approach to reducing bullying and increasing prosocial behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2016, 26(4): 1-16.(Meaningful Roles Project)是通過親社會行為來干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為的代表項目?！昂推浇ㄔO(shè)者的表揚貼士”項目鼓勵兒童使用表揚貼士對他人的親社會行為進(jìn)行表揚。表揚貼士會公開展示于教室、走廊或者學(xué)校網(wǎng)站上，以此對兒童的親社會行為進(jìn)行強化。這一方法有助于增強親社會兒童在群體中的影響力，從而對學(xué)校的文化產(chǎn)生積極的影響?！坝幸饬x角色項目”則為學(xué)生提供一系列被稱之為“有意義角色”的親社會機(jī)會，如給低年級同學(xué)輔導(dǎo)數(shù)學(xué)、幫助老師解決電腦和網(wǎng)絡(luò)技術(shù)問題等。當(dāng)兒童有機(jī)會通過親社會行為獲得他人的認(rèn)同和尊重，在同伴中樹立地位時，他們的欺負(fù)行為就會受到抑制。上述兩個項目主要針對中小學(xué)生，而著名的“早期兒童友誼項目”[注]Ostrov, J. M., Massetti, G. M., Stauffacher, K., Godleski, S. A., Hart, K. C., Karch, K. M., …Ries, E. E. An intervention for relational and physical aggression in early childhood: A preliminary study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2009, 24(1): 15-28.(Early Childhood Friendship Project)則是針對3-6歲幼兒的班級干預(yù)項目，該項目包含一系列促進(jìn)兒童學(xué)習(xí)合作、幫助、安慰等親社會行為的方法和策略，干預(yù)研究結(jié)果指出該項目能夠比較有效地降低幼兒的欺負(fù)行為。

(二)心理層面的因素

1.認(rèn)知能力和過程

已有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，兒童的認(rèn)知能力或者認(rèn)知加工的過程缺陷，可能會增加兒童卷入欺負(fù)行為的風(fēng)險。[注]Crick, N. R., Ostrov, J. M., & Kawabata, Y. Relational aggression and gender: An overview. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007.[注]Verlinden, M., Veenstra, R., Ghassabian, A., Jansen, P. W., Hofman, A., Jaddoe, V. V., … Tiemeier, H. Executive functioning and non-verbal intelligence as predictors of bullying in early elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2014, 42(6): 953-966.

首先，認(rèn)知能力和欺負(fù)之間的關(guān)系已經(jīng)得到了大量研究的證實。其中，智力就是和欺負(fù)有顯著關(guān)系的認(rèn)知指標(biāo)之一，很多研究都指出智商和犯罪行為[注]Zajenkowski, M., & Zajenkowska, A. Intelligence and aggression: the role of cognitive control and test related stress. Personality & Individual Differences, 2015, 81, 23-28.、一般的攻擊行為[注]Hall, W. J. Initial development and validation of the bullyharm: The bullying, harassment, and aggression receipt measure. Psychology in the Schools, 2016, 53(9): 984-1000.之間都有顯著負(fù)相關(guān)，低智商能夠顯著地預(yù)測個體卷入欺負(fù)行為。尤為重要的是，低智商影響個體欺負(fù)行為主要出現(xiàn)在8歲前，而欺負(fù)行為又會對兒童后續(xù)的智力和欺負(fù)行為產(chǎn)生進(jìn)一步的消極影響[注]Hall, W. J. Initial development and validation of the bullyharm: the bullying, harassment, and aggression receipt measure. Psychology in the Schools, 2016, 53(9): 984-1000.。Verlinden等人的大數(shù)據(jù)研究考察了兒童6歲時的非言語智力和小學(xué)初期的欺負(fù)卷入之間的關(guān)系，結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)，非言語智力和兒童欺負(fù)及被欺負(fù)現(xiàn)象均有顯著負(fù)相關(guān)。[注]Verlinden, M., Veenstra, R., Ghassabian, A., Jansen, P. W., Hofman, A., Jaddoe, V. V., … Tiemeier, H. Executive functioning and non-verbal intelligence as predictors of bullying in early elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2014, 42(6): 953-966.此外，執(zhí)行功能(Executive function)也是一種典型的智力因素，執(zhí)行功能中的多個成分，尤其是抑制控制成分，都和欺負(fù)及被欺負(fù)傾向有不同程度的負(fù)相關(guān)。[注]Ellis, M. L., Weiss, B., & Lochman, J. E. Executive functions in children: Associations with aggressive behavior and appraisal processing. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2009, 37(7): 945-956.如幼兒和學(xué)齡兒童的抑制控制和攻擊之間有負(fù)相關(guān)。[注]Medeiros, W., Torro-Alves, N., Malloy-Diniz, L. F., & Minervino, C. M. Executive functions in children who experience bullying situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 2016, 7(899): 1-9.幼兒4歲時的抑制控制能夠顯著預(yù)測其小學(xué)1-2年級時卷入欺負(fù)中的不同角色的風(fēng)險程度。[注]Verlinden, M., Veenstra, R., Ghassabian, A., Jansen, P. W., Hoffman, A., Jaddoe, V. V., … Tiemeier, H. Executive functioning and non-verbal intelligence as predictors of bullying in early elementary school. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2014, 42(6): 953-966.更具體的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，同伴游戲中執(zhí)行功能較差的學(xué)齡前兒童常表現(xiàn)出憤怒和反社會的行為[注]Hughes, C., White, A., Sharpen, J., & Dunn, J. Antisocial, angry, and unsympathetic: “Hard-to-manage” preschoolers’ peer problems and possible cognitive influences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2000, 41(2): 169-179.和破壞團(tuán)隊活動的傾向[注]Camodeca, M., Caravita, S. C., & Coppola, G. Bullying in preschool: The associations between participant roles, social competence, and social preference. Aggressive Behavior, 2014, 41(4): 310-321.。尤其是欺負(fù)-被欺負(fù)型兒童的抑制控制缺陷更為明顯。[注]Toblin, R. L., Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., & Abouezzeddine, T. Social-cognitive and behavioral attributes of aggressive victims of bullying. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2005, 26(3): 329-346.執(zhí)行功能中的其他成分，如欺負(fù)者和被欺負(fù)者的計劃能力[注]Monks, C. P., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. Psychological correlates of peer victimisation in preschool: Social cognitive skills, executive function and attachment profiles. Aggressive Behavior, 2010, 31(6): 571-588.、組織能力及元認(rèn)知[注]Coolidge, F. L., Denboer, J. W., & Segal, D. L. Personality and neuropsychological correlates of bullying behavior. Personality & Individual Differences, 2004, 36(7): 1559-1569.、工作記憶[注]Medeiros, W., Torro-Alves, N., Malloy-Diniz, L. F., & Minervino, C. M. Executive functions in children who experience bullying situations. Frontiers in Psychology, 2016, 7(899): 1-9.等，也都與兒童卷入欺負(fù)行為有顯著負(fù)相關(guān)。因此，一些干預(yù)項目試圖通過改善兒童的執(zhí)行功能和問題解決能力來改善其欺負(fù)卷入。典型的項目如“最初的朋友”[注]Randall, K. D. First friends——a social-emotional preventive intervention program: The mediational role of inhibitory control. Victoria, Canada: University of Victoria, 2011.(First Friends)等，該項目在其八周的課程方案中涉及執(zhí)行功能中的多種成分，如抑制控制、計劃和組織能力等的訓(xùn)練。

除了和認(rèn)知能力有關(guān)，欺負(fù)行為還和兒童的認(rèn)知加工的過程有關(guān)。社會加工模型(Social Information Process)認(rèn)為欺負(fù)等社會行為是通過識別信息、解釋線索、選擇目標(biāo)、產(chǎn)生解決方案和決策等一系列社會信息加工步驟形成的。[注]Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanism in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 1994, 115: 74-101.欺負(fù)型和受欺負(fù)型的兒童與其他同伴相比，幾乎所有的社會信息加工步驟都不一樣。[注]Camodeca, M., & Goossens, F. A. Aggression, social cognitions, anger and sadness in bullies and victims. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2005, 46(2): 186-197.首先，他們存在識別信息和解釋線索方面的偏差，使得這些幼兒理所當(dāng)然地實施、旁觀或接受欺負(fù)行為。[注]Saracho, O. N. Bullying: Young children’s roles, social status, and prevention programs. Early Child Development & Care, 2016, 187(1): 1-12.這種偏差在欺負(fù)型兒童身上表現(xiàn)得尤為清晰，這些兒童一方面往往會高估他人的敵意，[注]Camodeca, M., & Goossens, F. A. Aggression, social cognitions, anger and sadness in bullies and victims. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2005, 46(2): 186-197.認(rèn)為欺負(fù)行為是解決問題的有效方法，[注]Ellis, M. L., Weiss, B., & Lochman, J. E. Executive functions in children: Associations with aggressive behavior and appraisal processing. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2009, 37(7): 945-956.[注]Salmivalli, C. Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 2010, 15(2): 112-120.或者認(rèn)為欺負(fù)那些和自己不一樣的“奇怪”的同伴是理所應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)摹注]Thornberg, R. Schoolchildren’s social representations on bullying causes. Psychology in the Schools, 2010, 47(4): 311-327.對欺負(fù)型兒童進(jìn)行訪談發(fā)現(xiàn)，幼兒和小學(xué)兒童欺負(fù)他人的常見原因是：對方和自己不一樣，顯得很奇怪，包括奇怪的外表(穿奇怪的衣服，太胖或太瘦)、奇怪的行為(和其他同伴不太一樣的行為)、奇怪的性格(性格比較怪異或者笨拙)和能力缺陷(往往是殘疾)。改變這些偏差的方式之一是提升兒童對于差異化的包容性和接受性。不少干預(yù)研究借助繪本來提升幼兒的包容度。[注]Freeman, G. G. The implementation of character education and children’s literature to teach bullying characteristics and prevention strategies to preschool children: An action research project. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2014, 42(5): 305-316.[注]Oppliger, P. A., & Davis, A. Portrayals of bullying: a content analysis of picture books for preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2016, 44(5): 515-526.繪本中包含了大量幼兒生活的情景，通過閱讀繪本，既可以增加幼兒對欺負(fù)行為的了解，也能促使孩子對多樣化的同伴和環(huán)境產(chǎn)生好奇，從而提升他們對差異性的接納。此外，被欺負(fù)的兒童和旁觀者也有識別信息和解釋線索的偏差。他們不了解欺負(fù)行為的特征，不知道自己正在遭遇欺負(fù)，或者認(rèn)為自己做錯了，應(yīng)該受到他人攻擊。因此，一些幼兒干預(yù)項目通過告訴兒童欺負(fù)行為的特征以及減輕孩子自我責(zé)備的傾向，來干預(yù)這些理所當(dāng)然受欺負(fù)的情況。[注]Levine, E., & Tamburrino, M. Bullying among young children: Strategies for prevention. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2014, 42(4): 271-278.

2.情緒和情感特征

卷入欺負(fù)的兒童具有顯著的情緒風(fēng)格和特征。

首先，卷入欺負(fù)行為中的兒童具有一定的情緒風(fēng)格。如，受欺負(fù)者往往是比較順從的、不安全型的兒童，[注]Salmivalli, C. Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 2010, 15(2): 112-120.有更多的焦慮、抑郁傾向及低自尊的特征。[注]Malecki, C., Demaray, M. K., Coyle, S., Geosling, R., Rueger, S. Y., Rueger Wheaton College, … Dekalb, B. Frequency, power differential, and intentionality and the relationship to anxiety, depression, and self-esteem for victims of bullying. Child & Youth Care Forum, 2015, 44 (1): 115-131.

其次，包括情緒識別、理解、調(diào)節(jié)在內(nèi)的有關(guān)情緒能力也可負(fù)向預(yù)測幼兒卷入欺負(fù)行為。欺負(fù)者的情緒調(diào)節(jié)能力有明顯損傷，他們無法有效調(diào)節(jié)情緒沖動。[注]Espelage, D. L., & Low, S. School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances: Early preventative interventions. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.因此，通過訓(xùn)練兒童的情緒調(diào)節(jié)能力來干預(yù)幼兒的欺負(fù)行為是干預(yù)欺負(fù)的一種常見策略，如情緒調(diào)節(jié)技能和果斷性訓(xùn)練，研究表明該項目對降低攻擊和欺負(fù)行為有一定的作用，尤其是對那些既是欺負(fù)者又是受欺負(fù)者的個體。[注]Salmivalli, C. Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 2010, 15(2): 112-120.此外被欺負(fù)的幼兒也具有情緒調(diào)節(jié)方面的障礙。當(dāng)面對欺負(fù)的時候，如果個體以高情緒化的方式做出反應(yīng)，容易引發(fā)對方進(jìn)一步的欺負(fù)行為，而采用平靜、果斷的反應(yīng)方式則有助于降低后續(xù)暴力行為的可能性。[注]Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. The emergence of chronic peer victimization in boys’ play groups. Child Development, 1993, 64(6): 1755-1772.而具有較好的情緒能力的個體不僅卷入欺負(fù)和攻擊的可能性更低，而且在沖突發(fā)生之后有更多的和解的行為。[注]Liao, Z., Li, Y., & Su, Y. Emotion understanding and reconciliation in overt and relational conflict scenarios among preschoolers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2014, 38(2): 111-117.對此有項目設(shè)計了一系列 “腳本”(scripts)，通過情境演練的方法來訓(xùn)練被欺負(fù)型兒童提升自我調(diào)節(jié)能力，培養(yǎng)平靜、果斷的反應(yīng)方式。[注]Syaodih, E., & Handayani, H. Developing assertive ability of young children as a countermeasure effort for bullying behavior. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 2017, 58(3): 163-168.

最后，共情也是和欺負(fù)卷入密切相關(guān)的一個情緒因素。大量研究指出共情或共情的某些成分有缺陷，與個體實施和旁觀欺負(fù)行為有一定關(guān)系。[注]Pellegrini, A. D., & Long, J. D. A longitudinal study of bullying, dominance, and victimization during the transition from primary school through secondary school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2002, 20(2): 259-280.因此，一些研究者們試圖通過培養(yǎng)兒童的共情來降低其欺負(fù)行為的水平，最典型的就是“共情的根”項目(The Roots of Emapthy)，該項目旨在通過訓(xùn)練個體的情緒共情(讓同伴感同身受受害同伴的情緒感受)和認(rèn)知共情(推理同伴情緒的原因和結(jié)果)來降低兒童的攻擊和欺負(fù)。[注]Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Smith, V., Zaidman-Zait, A., & Hertzman, C. Promoting children’s prosocial behaviors in school: Impact of the “roots of empathy” program on the social and emotional competence of school-aged children. School Mental Health, 2012, 4(1): 1-21.不過相比大一些的青少年，該項目似乎對較小的孩子具有更好的效果。[注]Yeager, D. S., Fong, C. J., Lee, H. Y., & Espelage, D. L. Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2015, 37(1): 36-51.此外，前述“最初的朋友”項目也涉及情緒能力的多個方面，如情緒理解、情緒調(diào)節(jié)和共情。

三、環(huán)境因素對早期欺負(fù)行為的影響及干預(yù)方案

欺負(fù)行為和現(xiàn)象是非常復(fù)雜的。從社會生態(tài)學(xué)的視角來看，兒童生活在包括同伴、家庭、學(xué)校、社會和文化環(huán)境在內(nèi)的多重嵌套的系統(tǒng)中，包括欺負(fù)和受害在內(nèi)的行為都是各種因素相互影響的結(jié)果。[注]Bronfenbrenner, U. Ecological models of human development. M. Gauvain, & M. Cole, New York, NY: Freeman, 1994.兒童自身也是這個復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)的一部分，其行為也會影響周圍環(huán)境。[注]Espelage, D. L., & Low, S. School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances: Early preventative interventions. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.[注]Espelage, D. L., & Swearer, S. M. Bullying in American Schools: A Social-Ecological Perspective on Prevention and Intervention. London, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.

(一)教師

學(xué)校是欺負(fù)行為發(fā)生最典型和最頻繁的環(huán)境。欺負(fù)以及被欺負(fù)現(xiàn)象都是個體和環(huán)境復(fù)雜交互作用的結(jié)果。教師是學(xué)校因素和學(xué)生互動的中間橋梁，教師處于學(xué)校這個小生境[注]Super, C.M., Harkness, S. The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of childand culure[J]. Internatinal Journal of Behavioral Development. 1986, (95):45-69.(niche)的核心，他們對于欺負(fù)的反應(yīng)不僅會影響學(xué)生的后續(xù)的欺負(fù)行為，[注]Yoon, J., & Bauman, S. Teachers: A critical but overlooked component of bullying prevention and intervention. Theory into Practice, 2014, 53(4): 308-314.還會影響旁觀者干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為的程度；[注]Hektner, J. M., & Swenson, C. A. Links from teacher beliefs to peer victimization and bystander intervention: Tests of mediating processes. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 2012, 32(4): 516-536.此外，教師的應(yīng)對策略和學(xué)生后續(xù)的欺負(fù)行為程度、水平均有顯著關(guān)聯(lián)。[注]Troop-Gordon, W., & Ladd, G. W. Teachers’ victimization-related beliefs and strategies: Associations with students’ aggressive behavior and peer victimization. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2015, 43(1): 45-60.因此，很多幼兒欺負(fù)的預(yù)防干預(yù)項目都將教師納入到項目中來，對教師的培訓(xùn)和指導(dǎo)給予了極大的重視。如著名的“兩步走”項目[注]Espelage, D. L., Low, S., Polanin, J. R., & Brown, E. C. Clinical trial of second step middle-school program: impact on aggression and victimization. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2015, 37(1): 52-63.(Second Step)中的重要內(nèi)容是訓(xùn)練教師使用三種特定的策略來降低幼兒的攻擊行為和增加親社會行為。[注]Frey, K. S., Hirschstein, M. K., & Guzzo, B. A. Second step: Preventing aggression by promoting social competence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2000, 8(2): 102-112.目前，該項目已經(jīng)發(fā)展了針對幼兒的課程(Second Step Early Learning, 簡稱SSEL)[注]Upshur, C. C., Heyman, M., & Wenz-Gross, M. Efficacy trial of the second step early learning (ssel) curriculum: preliminary outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2017, 50(3): 15-25.，依然將教師培訓(xùn)作為項目的核心。此外，“提升早教機(jī)構(gòu)同伴互動項目”(Fostering Peer Interaction in Early Childhood Settings，簡稱FPIECS)[注]Kwon, K. A., Elicker, J., & Kontos, S. Social IEP objectives, teacher talk, and peer interaction in inclusive and segregated preschool settings. Early Childhood Education Journal, 2011, 39(4): 267-277.也突出教師的重要作用，該項目不涉及兒童課程和游戲，而是全部通過訓(xùn)練教師如何使用語言策略在游戲情境中培養(yǎng)幼兒積極的同伴互動。

(二)父母

家庭是和兒童聯(lián)系最緊密的微環(huán)境，父母是兒童最重要的他人，對于兒童卷入欺負(fù)行為有重要影響。首先，家庭教養(yǎng)方式和幼兒卷入欺負(fù)行為有密切關(guān)系。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，兒童的欺負(fù)卷入和消極的家庭教養(yǎng)方式(獨裁或者溺愛型)有正相關(guān)，而和權(quán)威型家庭教養(yǎng)方式呈負(fù)相關(guān)；其次，學(xué)齡前兒童的關(guān)系攻擊行為可能還會受到早期和父母互動經(jīng)驗的影響。[注]Rajendran, K., Kruszewski, E., & Halperin, J. M. Parenting style influences bullying: a longitudinal study comparing children with and without behavioral problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2016, 57(2): 188.

因此，對父母的教養(yǎng)方式、語言方式等進(jìn)行干預(yù)也是一種有效的干預(yù)手段。Ttofi和Farrington的元分析研究指出，父母干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為和學(xué)校系統(tǒng)干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為有著基本相同的效果，通過為父母提供有效的信息和培訓(xùn)等方式，指導(dǎo)家庭干預(yù)子女的欺負(fù)行為和被欺負(fù)的情況，能使兒童欺負(fù)者的人數(shù)降低20%-23%，使欺負(fù)-受欺負(fù)者的人數(shù)下降17%-20%。[注]Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 2011, 7(1): 27-56.越來越多的干預(yù)項目都將父母的有關(guān)因素包括進(jìn)來。前述提及的很多項目，如“共情的根項目”就非常重視家長的作用，項目的督導(dǎo)會在連續(xù)9周的時間對家長和孩子的互動進(jìn)行干預(yù)和指導(dǎo)。

(三)同伴和旁觀者

同伴是兒童社會化成長過程中的重要因素。同伴本身是兒童歸屬感的來源，也是兒童社會技能學(xué)習(xí)的最主要渠道。

首先，欺負(fù)就其本質(zhì)來說就是一種人際關(guān)系的問題，不僅僅是一個兒童欺負(fù)人，另一個兒童被欺負(fù)，還意味著關(guān)系和角色的固化。[注]Pouwels, J. L., Salmivalli, C., Saarento, S., van den Berg, Y. H., Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. Predicting adolescents’ bullying participation from developmental trajectories of social status and behavior. Child Development, 2017, 1-20.因此，改變欺負(fù)的狀況要從更大的人際關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)著手進(jìn)行“同伴動力學(xué)(peer dynamics)”干預(yù)[注]Pepler, D., Craig, W., & O’Connell, P. Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective. S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage, New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.[注]陳光輝：《兒童欺負(fù)/受欺負(fù)與同伴網(wǎng)絡(luò)的關(guān)系:p*模型分析》，《心理發(fā)展與教育》 2014年第5期，第474-481頁。。研究者們發(fā)展了旨在通過改善同伴關(guān)系的項目來干預(yù)幼兒的欺負(fù)行為。如“你不能說，你不能玩”[注]Paley, G.V. You can’t say you can’t play. Cambridge, Massachusetts, US: Harvard University Press, 1992.[注]Harrist, A. W., & Bradley, K. D. You can’t say you can’t play: Intervening in the process of social exclusion in the kindergarten classroom. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2003, 18(2): 185-205.項目，就是以兒童圖書 “你不能說，你不能玩”為基礎(chǔ)材料展開的專門針對幼兒的教學(xué)干預(yù)，其重點是塑造幼兒同伴群體和班級氛圍，教會孩子不要使用社會排斥。

其次，那些在欺負(fù)行為發(fā)生時扮演旁觀者角色的個體也會對欺負(fù)行為產(chǎn)生重要影響。超過80%的欺負(fù)情境中都有旁觀者；[注]Polanin, J. R., Espelage, D. L., & Pigott, T. D. A meta-analysis of school-based bullying prevention programs’ effects on bystander intervention behavior. School Psychology Review, 2012, 41(1): 47-65.同伴的旁觀會顯著增加對欺負(fù)者的關(guān)注，從而強化欺負(fù)行為。如果欺負(fù)發(fā)生時，旁觀的同伴采取措施對欺負(fù)行為進(jìn)行干預(yù)，往往具有很好的效果。但是這些旁觀的同伴往往不知道如何處理。因此一些干預(yù)項目從旁觀者的反應(yīng)入手來干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為，如告訴兒童如何清晰地報告他們看到的欺負(fù)行為，模擬和演練如何面對欺負(fù)行為(如，練習(xí)說“別這樣，你這是欺負(fù)人”)。Polanin等人的元分析綜合分析了之前12個使用旁觀者方式干預(yù)欺負(fù)行為的項目的效果，結(jié)果證實了旁觀者干預(yù)的有效性。[注]Polanin, J. R., Espelage, D. L., & Pigott, T. D. A meta-analysis of school-based bullying prevention programs’ effects on bystander intervention behavior. School Psychology Review, 2012, 41(1): 47-65.

(四)社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位

兒童卷入欺負(fù)行為還會受到個體的社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位影響，很多研究都發(fā)現(xiàn)欺負(fù)者的社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位往往更高，[注]Due, P., Merlo, J., Harel-Fisch, Y., Damsgaard, M. T., Holstein, B. E., Hetland, J., … Lynch, J. Socioeconomic inequality in exposure to bullying during adolescence: A comparative, cross-sectional, multilevel study in 35 countries. American Journal of Public Health, 2009, 99(5): 907-914.[注]Jansen, D. E., Veenstra, R., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Reijneveld, S. A. Early risk factors for being a bully, victim, or bully/victim in late elementary and early secondary education. The longitudinal TRAILS study. BMC Public Health, 2011, 11(1): 1-7.而低社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位的青少年往往更容易受欺負(fù)。[注]Nordhagen, R., Nielsen, A., Stigum, H., & Kohler, L. Parental reported bullying among Nordic children: A population-based study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 2005, 31(6): 693-701.[注]Jansen, D. E., Veenstra, R., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Reijneveld, S. A. Early risk factors for being a bully, victim, or bully/victim in late elementary and early secondary education. The longitudinal TRAILS study. BMC Public Health, 2011, 11(1): 1-7.

兒童所在的學(xué)校和社區(qū)的社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位也能負(fù)向預(yù)測兒童的欺負(fù)行為。[注]Jansen, P. W., Verlinden, M., Berke, A. D., Mieloo, C., Ende, J., Veenstra, R., … Tiemeier, H. Prevalence of bullying and victimization among children in early elementary school: Do family and school neighbourhood socioeconomic status matter?. BMC Public Health, 2012, 12(1): 494-503.這種影響在兒童幼年時期尤為顯著，Halpern等人的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，5歲前處于不利社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位的幼兒之后成為受欺負(fù)者的概率明顯更高。[注]Halpern, J., Jutte, D., Colby, J., & Boyce, W. T. Social dominance, school bullying, and child health: What are our ethical obligations to the very young?. Pediatrics, 2015, 135 (suppl. 2): 24-30.該結(jié)果提示我們，欺負(fù)的早期干預(yù)要尤其關(guān)注那些處于不利社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位的兒童。

四、小結(jié)

上述個體因素和環(huán)境因素相互影響，以動態(tài)方式、通過多重通路影響幼兒對欺負(fù)行為的卷入。如圖1所示，可能是社會、情緒能力缺陷引發(fā)了幼兒的問題行為；[注]Espelage, D. L., & Low, S. School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances: Early preventative interventions. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.而這些問題行為又會對學(xué)校、家庭和社區(qū)等一系列兒童的環(huán)境系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生影響，使幼兒產(chǎn)生同伴拒絕或者學(xué)校不適應(yīng)等問題，這些問題可能通過多條通路導(dǎo)致兒童欺負(fù)行為的卷入，而卷入欺負(fù)行為又將惡化兒童的社會生存環(huán)境，進(jìn)一步削弱他們的社會支持。[注]Pellegrini, A. D., Long, J. D., Solberg, D., Roseth, C., Dupuis, D. N., Bohn-Gettler, C. M., & Hickey, M. Handbook of Bullying in Schools: An International Perspective. S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. E. Espelage, New York: Routledge, 2010.欺負(fù)行為也可能發(fā)源于外部，如社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位或者環(huán)境中具有較強攻擊性個體的存在很可能會引發(fā)欺負(fù)行為，而欺負(fù)行為又會引起個體認(rèn)知和情緒能力發(fā)展的問題。[注]Sciberras, E., Ohan, J., & Anderson, V. Bullying and peer victimization in adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 2012, 43(2): 254-270.未來對于幼兒欺負(fù)的干預(yù)需要重視三個方面的問題：

首先，應(yīng)采取綜合和多角度的干預(yù)方式。盡管不同的干預(yù)項目有不同的理論出發(fā)點和側(cè)重點，但干預(yù)行為不可能僅從某一個角度出發(fā)并獲得成功。我們既要從幼兒的發(fā)展特征、情感社會能力和行為特點出發(fā)，也要考慮欺負(fù)者、受欺負(fù)者、教師、同伴和旁觀者等各個因素，還要將幼兒的生理易感性、生活經(jīng)歷和更大的社會文化情景集合在一起，共同考察其卷入欺負(fù)行為的具體原因，并進(jìn)行綜合干預(yù)。[注]Dodge, K., & Petit, G. A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 2003, 39(2): 349-371.

圖1 個人因素和環(huán)境因素對兒童卷入欺負(fù)行為的影響

其次，發(fā)展針對幼兒的專門干預(yù)。幼兒心理特征和同伴交往特征不同于其他年齡階段的個體，其欺負(fù)行為發(fā)生發(fā)展的一般規(guī)律和影響因素也都有所不同。因此，針對幼兒的欺負(fù)干預(yù)項目往往使用更為具體和可視化的方法來進(jìn)行，以幫助幼兒更好地理解欺負(fù)的含義和應(yīng)對的方法。以“兒童早期友誼項目”[注]Ostrov, J. M., Massetti, G. M., Stauffacher, K., Godleski, S. A., Hart, K. C., Karch, K. M., …Ries, E. E. An intervention for relational and physical aggression in early childhood: A preliminary study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2009, 24(1): 15-28.為代表的大多數(shù)幼兒欺負(fù)干預(yù)項目[注]Saracho, O. N. Bullying: Young children’s roles, social status, and prevention programs. Early Child Development & Care, 2016, 187(1): 1-12.都非常注重干預(yù)過程的游戲性，如在干預(yù)課程中使用玩偶劇或故事的方式來開展干預(yù)。

最后，家、校、社區(qū)生態(tài)化干預(yù)。從生態(tài)學(xué)觀點來看，如果個體在學(xué)校參與欺負(fù)行為，他/她在家庭和社區(qū)也可能遇到類似問題，[注]Swearer, S. M., Espelage, D. L., Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. What can be done about school bullying? Linking research to educational practice. Educational Researcher, 2010, 39(1): 38-47.該理論表明，欺負(fù)的干預(yù)可以在多個場合互通。因此當(dāng)前的干預(yù)項目強調(diào)在干預(yù)過程中進(jìn)行家校合作、社區(qū)-學(xué)校合作甚至三方面的合作。常用的方式是將學(xué)校、家庭和社區(qū)中的關(guān)鍵個體納入到干預(yù)團(tuán)隊中。如MC項目將教師和家長都納入干預(yù)流程中。[注]Fraser, M. W., Day, S. H., Galinsky, M. J., Hodges, V. G., & Smokowski, P. R. Conduct problems and peer rejection in childhood: A randomized trial of the making choices and strong families programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 2004, 14(5): 313-324.一個項目是否能夠整合在學(xué)校和社區(qū)當(dāng)中，也是決定這個項目能否持續(xù)下去的關(guān)鍵因素。[注]Leff, S. S., Gullan, R. L., Paskewich, B. S., Abdul-Kabir, S., Jawad, A. F., Grossman, M., … Power, T. J. An initial evaluation of a culturally-adapted social problem solving and relational aggression prevention program for urban african american relationally aggressive girls. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 2009, 37(4): 260-274.

總之，幼兒的欺負(fù)卷入有著復(fù)雜的內(nèi)部機(jī)制和外部表現(xiàn)，幼兒欺負(fù)的規(guī)律還有很多疑問有待揭示，理論和干預(yù)實踐相聯(lián)系的路徑也還需要在大量研究中進(jìn)行驗證，還需要來自不同領(lǐng)域的研究者們不斷通過分析和整合去勾畫問題的全貌，并找到干預(yù)的關(guān)鍵樞紐。