朱凌嬌,李 倩,吳玲玲
(同濟(jì)大學(xué) 環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程學(xué)院,上海 200092)
· 綜 述 ·
有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物的毒性效應(yīng)的研究進(jìn)展
朱凌嬌,李 倩,吳玲玲
(同濟(jì)大學(xué) 環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程學(xué)院,上海 200092)
在現(xiàn)今世界范圍內(nèi),有機(jī)錫化合物已被廣泛應(yīng)用于殺蟲(chóng)劑、除草劑、木材保護(hù)劑、防污漆和聚氯乙烯穩(wěn)定劑等,因此對(duì)人類日常生活產(chǎn)生重要影響。綜述有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物的生殖毒性、遺傳毒性、免疫毒性以及神經(jīng)毒性等方面的研究進(jìn)展,為進(jìn)一步研究其致毒機(jī)制和健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)提供參考。
有機(jī)錫化合物;生殖毒性;遺傳毒性;免疫毒性;神經(jīng)毒性
有機(jī)錫是一種金屬有機(jī)化合物,通式為RnSnX4-n,R為烴基,X為陰離子,其中錫元素和烴基中的碳元素直接結(jié)合形成Sn-C鍵,性質(zhì)穩(wěn)定,只有在強(qiáng)酸、強(qiáng)堿、紫外線或氧化劑的作用下才能斷裂[1]。有機(jī)錫化合物主要分為一烴基錫(RSnX3)、二烴基錫(R2SnX2)、三烴基錫(R3SnX)和四烴基錫(R4Sn),廣泛應(yīng)用于殺蟲(chóng)劑、除草劑、木材保護(hù)劑、防污漆和聚氯乙烯穩(wěn)定劑等。其中用于海洋船體防污的三丁基錫(TBT)涂料最多,它能有效防止海洋附著生物如海藻、軟體動(dòng)物、海綿等對(duì)船體、碼頭、鉆井平臺(tái)等的侵蝕。然而,上個(gè)世紀(jì)70年代末期,人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在法國(guó)Arcachon灣養(yǎng)殖的牡蠣貝殼鈣化異常,厚度增加,繁殖力下降,其市場(chǎng)價(jià)值受到嚴(yán)重威脅[2],這正是有機(jī)錫的污染造成的[3]。由此,科學(xué)家開(kāi)始對(duì)有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物的致毒效應(yīng)展開(kāi)研究。有研究表明,有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物產(chǎn)生不同程度的毒性效應(yīng),其毒性順序?yàn)镽3SnX>R2SnX2>RSnX3,R4Sn一般認(rèn)為是無(wú)毒的[4]。R3SnX中以TBT的毒性最強(qiáng)且應(yīng)用最廣泛,對(duì)環(huán)境造成了一定程度的污染。謝永紅[5]等發(fā)現(xiàn)TBT可以顯著影響派格棍形藻、聚生角毛藻、簡(jiǎn)裸甲藻的光合活性。Inoue[6]等人研究表明,當(dāng)水中TBT濃度為0.191μg/L時(shí),珍珠貝(Pinctadafucatamartensii)胚胎發(fā)育成功的概率會(huì)下降17%。上個(gè)世紀(jì)80年代中期開(kāi)始,法國(guó)、英國(guó)、美國(guó)等國(guó)家陸續(xù)限制和禁止TBT的使用[7],2001年10月,國(guó)際海事組織成員國(guó)審議并通過(guò)了《2001年國(guó)際控制船舶有害防污系統(tǒng)公約》(AFS公約),該條約的附則I要求,2003年1月1日起,所有船舶不得再施涂含有TBT防污漆,到2008年,全面禁止涂有有機(jī)錫涂料的船舶的使用[8]。2011年6月我國(guó)正式加入AFS公約[9],逐步加強(qiáng)對(duì)有機(jī)錫污染的控制。
目前,關(guān)于有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物的致毒效應(yīng)主要集中于以下幾個(gè)方面。
TBT作為一種環(huán)境內(nèi)分泌干擾物(EDCs),會(huì)對(duì)生物的生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生毒性效應(yīng)。表1綜述了TBT對(duì)生物的生殖毒性效應(yīng)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),TBT能使軟體動(dòng)物發(fā)生性畸變[10],有致雄作用(表1)。軟體動(dòng)物對(duì)TBT的作用十分敏感,當(dāng)水中TBT濃度大于20ng/L時(shí),雙殼類軟體動(dòng)物的繁殖就會(huì)受到影響[11]。調(diào)查顯示,受有機(jī)錫的影響,目前已經(jīng)有268種腹足綱軟體動(dòng)物的雌性個(gè)體雄性化[12]。TBT同時(shí)也有致雌的作用,可以引起雌性軟體動(dòng)物、魚(yú)類體內(nèi)的睪酮含量、雌二醇含量發(fā)生變化(表1),也能導(dǎo)致雄性軟體動(dòng)物、魚(yú)類精子活性下降,形態(tài)異常(表2),同時(shí)也能導(dǎo)致其子代的孵化率下降(表3)。在較高濃度下,TBT也能使哺乳動(dòng)物的性激素含量異常,生殖器官發(fā)生病變,甚至對(duì)子代的生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生影響(表1)。由此可見(jiàn),TBT的生殖毒性危害十分廣泛,甚至對(duì)生物的繁衍與延續(xù)產(chǎn)生影響。
DNA損傷包括DNA鏈斷裂、DNA位點(diǎn)突變、DNA雙鏈畸變等多種形式,導(dǎo)致遺傳特征發(fā)生改變。研究表明,TBT能使細(xì)胞內(nèi)活性氧簇(ROS)含量升高,導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞氧化損傷,從而引起DNA的損傷。TBT可以對(duì)海洋生物[21-22]、淡水生物[23]、陸生哺乳動(dòng)物[24]造成不同程度的DNA損傷(表4),且損傷程度與TBT濃度呈正相關(guān)[21](圖1)。
圖1 不同濃度TBT暴露下牡蠣鰓細(xì)胞 DNA 損傷程度[21]Fig.1 DNA damage of gill cells of oyster exposed to different TBT concentrations [21]
表1 TBT的致雄作用Tab.1 Imposex development caused by TBT
表2 TBT的致雌作用Tab.2 Imposex development caused by TBT
表3 TBT導(dǎo)致胚胎發(fā)育異常Tab.3 Embryonic development abnormalities caused by TBT
表4 TBT對(duì)不同生物造成DNA損傷Tab.4 DNA damage caused by TBT on different organisms
TBT對(duì)動(dòng)物的免疫系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生危害(表5)。動(dòng)物的免疫系統(tǒng)主要由免疫器官、免疫細(xì)胞以及免疫活性物質(zhì)組成,是生物防止病原入侵的重要手段。TBT能影響免疫活性酶的活性[25]對(duì)免疫B細(xì)胞[26]具有明顯損害作用,造成胸腺、脾臟萎縮[27],對(duì)免疫系統(tǒng)的非特異性免疫[28]、體液免疫和細(xì)胞免疫造成威脅。TBT暴露甚至對(duì)人體的免疫系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生危害。研究表明,TBT可以干擾人體免疫K細(xì)胞溶解靶細(xì)胞的過(guò)程,導(dǎo)致機(jī)體的抑菌能力溶菌酶活性和酚氧化酶水平下降,機(jī)體非特異性免疫功能受到抑制;阻礙腫瘤壞死因子TNF-α的分泌,而對(duì)正常細(xì)胞無(wú)明顯毒性[28]。
有機(jī)錫化合物還可以引起生物的神經(jīng)毒性。其中,對(duì)生物的神經(jīng)毒性較強(qiáng)、研究比較多的是三甲基錫(TMT)。研究表明,TMT可以選擇性地作用于大腦的邊緣系統(tǒng),包括梨狀皮層、內(nèi)嗅皮層、嗅球、杏仁核,尤其是海馬結(jié)構(gòu),引起神經(jīng)退行性疾病,包括神經(jīng)性炎癥[29]、興奮性谷氨酸毒性[30]、細(xì)胞內(nèi)鈣過(guò)載[31]以及線粒體功能障礙等[32]。此外,TMT可以誘發(fā)動(dòng)物出現(xiàn)認(rèn)知性功能障礙,產(chǎn)生癲癇等[33]。此外,TMT還可對(duì)外周感覺(jué)神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)造成損害,尤其是聽(tīng)覺(jué)系統(tǒng)。50μmol/L的TMT體外暴露24h,可導(dǎo)致大鼠的聽(tīng)覺(jué)器官耳蝸中的螺旋神經(jīng)節(jié)神經(jīng)元(SGN)和聽(tīng)覺(jué)神經(jīng)纖維(ANF)的數(shù)量大大降低,并出現(xiàn)SGN細(xì)胞皺縮,核濃縮等現(xiàn)象[34]。
表5 有機(jī)錫造成的免疫系統(tǒng)損傷Tab.5 Immune system damage caused by organotin compounds
除了上述的毒性效應(yīng)以外,有機(jī)錫化合物還可以誘發(fā)肥胖。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),采用ZOT測(cè)試法(Zebrafish obesogenic test)對(duì)斑馬魚(yú)幼苗進(jìn)行試驗(yàn),發(fā)現(xiàn)即使在禁食情況,經(jīng)過(guò)數(shù)小時(shí)在低濃度的TBT(≤50nmol/L)的暴露,也能誘發(fā)斑馬魚(yú)脂肪細(xì)胞的肥大[35-36](表6)。甚至能可以通過(guò)誘導(dǎo)與脂質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)、脂質(zhì)累積、脂質(zhì)生成酶等相關(guān)基因的表達(dá),導(dǎo)致肝脂肪變性[37]。
表6 有機(jī)錫造成動(dòng)物體內(nèi)脂肪含量的變化Tab.6 Change of fat content caused by organotin compounds
近年來(lái)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),有機(jī)錫化合物作為一種環(huán)境內(nèi)分泌干擾素,能影響與循環(huán)系統(tǒng)有關(guān)的蛋白質(zhì)的表達(dá),引起心血管疾病。用500ng/kg的TBT喂養(yǎng)小鼠15天后,發(fā)現(xiàn)雌鼠的腸系膜動(dòng)脈內(nèi)徑減小,血管壁增厚,血管彈性下降;這可能是由于TBT影響了還原型輔酶Ⅱ(NADPH)和細(xì)胞外調(diào)節(jié)蛋白激酶(ERK1/2)的活化反應(yīng)[40]。Botelho[41]等人觀察豬的肺動(dòng)脈內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞在劑量為100nmol/L和500nmol/L的TBT暴露下的緊密連接蛋白基因的表達(dá)情況,發(fā)現(xiàn)閉合蛋白(OCLN)和緊密連接蛋白-1(ZO-1)減少,而細(xì)胞間粘附分子-1(ICAM-1)和血管細(xì)胞粘附分子-1(VCAM-1)水平增加,大大提高了單核細(xì)胞粘附性,并由此改變內(nèi)皮輪廓,破壞其結(jié)構(gòu),降低其物質(zhì)交換的能力。500nmol/L的TBT還能誘導(dǎo)豬體內(nèi)白細(xì)胞介素-6(IL-6)增多,干擾豬主動(dòng)脈血管前體細(xì)胞的功能,使毛細(xì)血管不能有效地結(jié)合成網(wǎng)狀[42],改變主動(dòng)脈的形態(tài)和功能[43],損傷冠狀動(dòng)脈引發(fā)心血管疾病[44]。
有機(jī)錫化合物具有生殖毒性、遺傳毒性、免疫毒性、神經(jīng)毒性等多種毒性效應(yīng),還能誘發(fā)肥胖,引起心血管方面的疾病,對(duì)生物危害極大。目前關(guān)于有機(jī)錫化合物的毒性效應(yīng)研究已經(jīng)取得了一定的成績(jī),但是以下方面仍需要加深研究:(1)現(xiàn)有研究多是急性毒性試驗(yàn)結(jié)果,對(duì)于慢性毒性的研究尚未完全,尤其是對(duì)于子代乃至跨代生物的毒性效應(yīng),仍缺乏足夠的研究;(2)毒性試驗(yàn)中多是單一有機(jī)錫化合物對(duì)生物的直接暴露或體外細(xì)胞試驗(yàn),未能對(duì)其代謝產(chǎn)物在生物體內(nèi)造成的影響深究;(3)其致毒機(jī)理全貌尚不清楚,需利用如代謝組學(xué)、蛋白組學(xué)、轉(zhuǎn)錄組學(xué)等更為敏感的新興系統(tǒng)毒理學(xué)研究手段,尋找相關(guān)分子生物標(biāo)志物,深入剖析其毒性機(jī)制。
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A Review of Research on the Toxicology of Organotin Compounds
ZHU Ling-jiao,LI Qian,WU Ling-ling
(CollegeofEnvironmentalScience&Engineering,TongjiUniversity,Shanghai200092,China)
Organotin compounds have been widely used in pesticides, herbicides, wood preservatives, antifouling paints and PVC stabilizers, indicating their huge impact on human daily life. This review summarized the research progress on reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity and neurotoxicity of organotin compounds, and provides reference for further research on the toxic mechanism and health risks of organotin compounds.
Organotin Compounds;reproductive;genotoxicity;immunotoxicity;neurotoxicity
2016-11-11
朱凌嬌(1992-),女,天津人,同濟(jì)大學(xué)環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程學(xué)院2015級(jí)在讀碩士,研究方向?yàn)榄h(huán)境毒理學(xué)。
X18
A
1001-3644(2017)02-0161-06