陶衛(wèi)紅
(浙江財(cái)經(jīng)大學(xué)外國語學(xué)院,杭州310018)
語類研究有三個不同的傳統(tǒng):1)以Swales和Bhatia為代表的“特殊用途英語” (English for Specific Purposes,簡稱ESP);2)以Miller為代表的“新修辭學(xué)”(New Rhetoric);3)以Martin為代表的悉尼學(xué)派。
ESP關(guān)心的是大學(xué)階段以非英語為母語的學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)學(xué)術(shù)性話語的需要,強(qiáng)調(diào)的是語類的交際目的以及相關(guān)的語言特征,如 Swales[1-3],Bhatia[4-6]和 Hyland[7]所指出的。
新修辭學(xué)關(guān)心的是人們?nèi)绾问褂谜Z類以實(shí)現(xiàn)特定語境中的特定目的,強(qiáng)調(diào)的是人們?nèi)绾瓮ㄟ^語類實(shí)施社會行為并體現(xiàn)語言使用者之間的相互關(guān)系,如Miller[8], Bazerman[9], Berkenkotter & Huckin[10],F(xiàn)reedman & Medway(1994a,1994b),Coe,Lingard& Teslenko,Bazerman& Russell和 Bazerman,Bonini& Figueiredo[11]。
悉尼學(xué)派研究的重點(diǎn)是語類結(jié)構(gòu)潛勢 (generic structure potential),這個理論最初由 Halliday提出[12]。語類 (genre)指的是“用語言體現(xiàn)文化的、分階段實(shí)施的、有目的的社會過程”[13],如天氣預(yù)報(bào)、新聞報(bào)道、商業(yè)信函、小說、詩歌等。語類結(jié)構(gòu) (generic structure)指的是某個社會事件或某類社會事件所具有的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu),如體育新聞報(bào)道由“結(jié)果”加“過程”構(gòu)成、體育現(xiàn)場比賽評論由“過程”加“結(jié)果”構(gòu)成等。語類結(jié)構(gòu)潛勢指的則是某類社會活動所具有的潛在結(jié)構(gòu),如師生課堂對話的潛在結(jié)構(gòu)是“老師提問+學(xué)生回答+老師反饋”,而夫妻日常對話卻不一定有“反饋”這個環(huán)節(jié)。語類結(jié)構(gòu)潛勢理論重點(diǎn)研究以下四個問題:1)哪些步驟是必不可少的?2)哪些步驟是可有可無的?3)哪些步驟是可以多次出現(xiàn)的?4)所有步驟是按照什么順序出現(xiàn)的?由此可見,這個理論不僅關(guān)注語篇結(jié)構(gòu)的完整性,而且關(guān)注語篇內(nèi)部的邏輯性。正因?yàn)槿绱?,該理論對外語寫作教學(xué)有著很大的指導(dǎo)意義。從上世紀(jì)80年代起,該學(xué)派就把語類理論應(yīng)用于語言教學(xué)。他們最初關(guān)心的是小學(xué)、然后是中學(xué)和大學(xué)階段移民、土著和勞動人民家庭的子女在學(xué)習(xí)寫作過程中的需求,強(qiáng)調(diào)的是語類的語言結(jié)構(gòu)和符號結(jié)構(gòu),并把這種研究看作是系統(tǒng)功能語言學(xué)中語言與社會語境模型的一個組成部分。
上述三種研究傳統(tǒng)在我國語言學(xué)界都得到了積極的響應(yīng)。遵循前兩種傳統(tǒng)的重要成果有秦秀白[14-15]、鞠玉梅[16]、盧思源[17]等等;遵循第三種傳統(tǒng)的主要成果有張德祿[18-19]、辛斌[20]、于暉[21-22]等。
然而,國內(nèi)公開發(fā)表的與大學(xué)英語議論文寫作直接相關(guān)的研究成果為數(shù)很少,顯示高校英語教學(xué)對這個課題還沒有給予足夠的重視。本文將以系統(tǒng)功能語言學(xué)家提出的語類結(jié)構(gòu)潛勢理論為指導(dǎo),對目前我國大學(xué)英語議論文寫作教學(xué)存在的缺陷以及語類結(jié)構(gòu)理論對課堂教學(xué)的啟示展開討論,希望能為英語議論文寫作課教學(xué)質(zhì)量的提高發(fā)揮積極的作用。
為了客觀了解我國非英語專業(yè)大學(xué)生英語議論文的實(shí)際寫作能力,筆者于2012年12月對某所非211高校非英語專業(yè)的50名一年級本科生進(jìn)行了實(shí)地調(diào)查。具體做法是要求他們在30分鐘內(nèi)當(dāng)場完成一篇200字左右的議論文,題目是“What makes a good friend?”之所以選擇這個題目,是為了確保所有學(xué)生都能有話可說。此外,為避免學(xué)生因情緒緊張而影響作文過程和作文質(zhì)量,則通過任課教師在寫作課上安排學(xué)生寫作文,以十分自然的方式收集真實(shí)的語料。
因?yàn)槠?,本研究?0篇作文中挑選兩篇,以反映突出的問題。為了讓讀者看到學(xué)生的真實(shí)水平,將呈現(xiàn)這些作文的本來面貌,不做任何改動。不難看出,這兩篇作文含有詞匯、語法、修辭、邏輯等方面的問題,而在此主要討論文章的語類結(jié)構(gòu)。
議論文是以議論為主要表達(dá)方式,通過擺事實(shí),講道理,直接表達(dá)作者的觀點(diǎn)和主張的語類。
議論文有三個基本要素:論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)、論證。
論點(diǎn)就是文章所要議論、闡述的觀點(diǎn),是作者要表達(dá)的看法和主張,應(yīng)考慮正確性、鮮明性和新穎性。論點(diǎn)可以安排在開頭,也可以安排在中間或結(jié)尾,有時(shí)會是標(biāo)題,但較多情況是在文章的開頭。
論據(jù)指的是證明論點(diǎn)的材料、依據(jù),講究正確性和典型性。論據(jù)可以是事實(shí)材料,如具體事例和統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)字;也可以是理論依據(jù),如前人的經(jīng)典著作、至理名言、民間諺語和俗語、科學(xué)上的公理、規(guī)律等。
論證指的是用論據(jù)來證明論點(diǎn)的過程。這個過程可以分為立論和駁論兩大類型。立論是以充足的證據(jù)正面證明作者自己論點(diǎn)正確的論證方式;駁論則是以有力的論據(jù)反駁別人錯誤論點(diǎn)的論證方式,立論和駁論都是一種證明,無非一個是從正面證明其正確,而另一個是從反面證明其錯誤。二者可以使用基本相同的論證方法,如歸納法、演繹法、例證法、對比法等。
上述三大要素之間的關(guān)系是論點(diǎn)解決“要證明什么”的問題,論據(jù)解決“用什么來證明”的問題,而論證解決“如何進(jìn)行論證”的問題。論證的目的在于揭示出論點(diǎn)和論據(jù)之間的內(nèi)在邏輯關(guān)系。
議論文的語類結(jié)構(gòu)通常由三部分構(gòu)成:1)論點(diǎn);2)論據(jù)和論證;3)結(jié)論。在論點(diǎn)部分,初學(xué)者最好每篇文章只設(shè)一個論點(diǎn),以便把握。論點(diǎn)出現(xiàn)的位置以第一段的開頭或結(jié)尾為宜。論據(jù)以2~3個為宜。結(jié)論必須和論證保持一致。
在此,將對兩篇作文的語類結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行分析,首先指出存在的問題,然后根據(jù)議論文的語類結(jié)構(gòu)要求提供其相應(yīng)的修改稿。修改遵循兩條原則,一是盡量保留原文的表達(dá)方式,二是糾正明顯的語言錯誤,因此修改稿未必達(dá)到范文標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
What makes a good friend?
(1)As we all know,a good friend and a good teacher mean a lot to us.When we are puzzled,a good friend can tell us which way is the best.When we feel down,a good friend can cheer us up.When we feel lonely,a good friend always company us.
(2)To make a good friend,I think trust is exactly important.Trust is a bridge of deep communication.If you don’t trust your friends,you also will not trust you.Second,excusal also plays an important role in a good friendship.Everyone will make mistakes.What we can do is to learn to forgive others.When your friends make mistakes,we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming.
(3)Having a good friend,we could learn a lot from a good friend.And no matter in study and life,we can help each other.
這篇作文由三個自然段落構(gòu)成。第一段講的是擁有好朋友的重要性,但畫蛇添足地提到了“好老師”的重要性;第二段講的是好朋友的兩條標(biāo)準(zhǔn):互信和寬容;第三段講的依然是擁有好朋友的重要性,沒有提供結(jié)論性的意見,導(dǎo)致全文結(jié)構(gòu)不完整。另外,作文當(dāng)中還出現(xiàn)了較多的語言錯誤,包括用詞不當(dāng),如:“feel down”應(yīng)為“feel depressed”,“I think trust is exactly important”應(yīng)為“I think trust is most important”,“excusal also plays an importantrole in a good friendship”應(yīng)為“forgiveness also plays an important role in a good friendship”;語法錯誤如:“a good friend always company us” 應(yīng) 為 “a good friend always accompanies us”, “we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming”應(yīng)為“we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming them”;人稱指代混亂如:“If you don’t trust your friends,you also will not trust you.”應(yīng)為 “If you don’t trust your friends,they will not trust you.”下面是對原文進(jìn)行了語言和語類結(jié)構(gòu)整改后的修改稿:
What makes a good friend?
(1)As we all know,a good friend means a lot to us.When we are puzzled,a good friend can tell us which way is the best.When we feel depressed,a good friend can cheer us up.When we feel lonely,a good friend always accompanies us.
(2)To make a good friend,I think trust is most important.Trust is a bridge of deep com-munication.If you don’t trust your friends,they will not trust you.Second,forgiveness also plays an important role in a good friendship.Everyone will make mistakes.What we can do is to learn to forgive others.When your friends make mistakes,we should learn to forgive your friends instead of blaming them.
(3)There might be other things to consider,but to me trust and forgiveness can make a good friend.
What makes a good friend?
(1)Throughout our life,we rely on small groups of people for love,admiration,respect,moral support and help.It is the importance of a good friend we can conclude.So we have a question:What makes a good friend?
(2)As far as I am concerned,honesty is the most importantcomponentin a friendship.Ifyou are dishonesty,no one will make friend with you.Second,having trust in each other.Friendship is a source of happiness,so we should trust in each other.Third,having the common interest and goal.In our life,we know some good friends both in common interest and goal from ancient to the present age.For example,Marks and Engels.Last but not the least,I think good friend should have more times to get along with each other.Even they are at different place,they should contact with others.Good friend know what you like eat,what colour you like most.I think,a friend is,as it were,a second self.
(3)All of those make a good friend.
(4)As we all know,a good friend is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful rewarding life.No man is the whole of himself,his friends are the rest of him.We need good friend to make our life more lighter.
(5)What makes a good friend?Socrates says:“Don’t try to win a friend by presenting gifts.You should instead contribute your sincere love and learn how to win others through appropriate ways.”So we should make good friend with love and our heart.
這篇文章由五個自然段落組成,其中第一段以非常自然的方式引出問題。第二段從為人誠實(shí)、彼此信任、興趣相同和時(shí)常相聚等方面論述了好朋友的條件。第三段是全文的結(jié)論。第四段講的是擁有好朋友的重要性。第五段重提好朋友的要素是什么這個問題,但所引用的蘇格拉底的一段話講的卻是如何交到好朋友的方法。對照議論文語類結(jié)構(gòu)的要求,這篇作文有兩點(diǎn)不足。一是第二段內(nèi)部層次不夠清楚,說到的內(nèi)容有四點(diǎn),但沒有明顯的話語標(biāo)記;二是第四段和第五段多余,可以刪除,但考慮到有一定的保留價(jià)值,可以把第四段整合進(jìn)第一段,把第五段整合進(jìn)第二段。另外作文中出現(xiàn)了很多語法及搭配錯誤,如:“If you are dishonesty,no one will make friend with you”應(yīng)為“If you are dishonest,no one will make friends with you”,“Third,having the common interest and goal”應(yīng)為“having common interest and goal”, “Even they are at different place,they should contact with others”應(yīng)為 “Even they are at different places,they should contact each other”,等等。下面是對原文在語言上尤其是在結(jié)構(gòu)上進(jìn)行了較大改動后的修改稿:
What makes a good friend?
(1)A good friend is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful rewarding life.Throughout our life,we rely on a small group of friends for love,admiration,respect,moral support and help.But we have to answer a question:What makes a good friend?
(2)First,being honest is the most important component in a friendship.If you are dishonest,no one will make friends with you.Second,having trust in each other.Friendship is a source of happiness,so we should trust in each other.Third,having common interest and goal.In our life,we know some good friends both in common interest and goal from ancient to the present age.For example,Marx and Engels.Fourth,love.Socrates says: “Don’t try to win a friend by presenting gifts.You should instead contribute your sincere love and learn how to win others through appropriate ways.”So we should make good friends with love and our heart.Last but not the least,I think good friend should have more times to get along with each other.Even they are at different places,they should contact each other.Good friends know what you like to eat,what colour you like most.I think,a friend is,as it were,a second self.
(3)I think,all this makes a good friend.
本次調(diào)查表明,大學(xué)生的英語寫作能力總體偏低。除了單詞拼寫、語法、搭配等方面存在大量錯誤外,篇章結(jié)構(gòu)殘缺、多余和混亂的現(xiàn)象普遍存在,顯示了中小學(xué)英語教學(xué)和大學(xué)英語教學(xué)對語類結(jié)構(gòu)重要性的認(rèn)識明顯不足,需要引起師生雙方的高度關(guān)注。具體措施可以包括以下幾個方面:1)在教材編寫和教師授課過程中有意識地強(qiáng)化語類結(jié)構(gòu)的意識。在英語寫作教材的編寫過程中,將語類結(jié)構(gòu)理論知識編入教材,通過這方面的系統(tǒng)介紹,使學(xué)習(xí)者能夠在寫作時(shí)具備基本的語類知識從而避免出現(xiàn)作文的篇章結(jié)構(gòu)殘缺、多余或混亂的現(xiàn)象。2)通過范文向?qū)W生演示完整而正確的議論文結(jié)構(gòu)。結(jié)合范文講解如何運(yùn)用語類結(jié)構(gòu)理論知識規(guī)范作文的框架,構(gòu)建作文的思路,避免出現(xiàn)條理不清、思路混亂的現(xiàn)象。3)通過學(xué)生作文的現(xiàn)場分析和批改幫助學(xué)生認(rèn)清存在的結(jié)構(gòu)問題。將問題作文展示給學(xué)生,分析并指出作文的不足之處,除了其中的語言錯誤之外,在篇章結(jié)構(gòu)方面還存在哪些問題和缺陷,并讓學(xué)生運(yùn)用所學(xué)知識即時(shí)修改作文,使之更加符合文章的文法規(guī)則,做到篇章結(jié)構(gòu)更加符合邏輯,條理層次更加明了清晰。
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