Miranda JJ,Kinra S,Casas JP,Davey Smith G,Ebrahim S
1.倫敦衛(wèi)生與熱帶病醫(yī)學(xué)院 英國(guó)倫敦2.布里斯托大學(xué) 英國(guó)布里斯托
·專題研究·
中低收入國(guó)家的慢性?。罕尘?、決定因素與衛(wèi)生政策
Miranda JJ1*,Kinra S1,Casas JP1,Davey Smith G2,Ebrahim S1
1.倫敦衛(wèi)生與熱帶病醫(yī)學(xué)院 英國(guó)倫敦2.布里斯托大學(xué) 英國(guó)布里斯托
近年來,中低收入國(guó)家慢性病不斷上升的趨勢(shì)及其產(chǎn)生的影響受到廣泛關(guān)注,但有關(guān)這種上升趨勢(shì)的解釋和說明大多基于高收入國(guó)家的慢性病發(fā)展史,但其所經(jīng)歷的發(fā)展歷程與中低收入國(guó)家并不完全相同。本文對(duì)這些差異進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià),以更好地理解中低收入國(guó)家慢性病的流行趨勢(shì),并對(duì)慢性病決定因素的相關(guān)理論加以討論,為慢性病的防控提供循證支持。此外,本文將慢性病防控政策看作是降低人口患病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和個(gè)體易感性的重要干預(yù)手段,并討論了中低收入國(guó)家需要開展的相關(guān)政策研究。在此基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)調(diào)了加強(qiáng)初級(jí)衛(wèi)生保健改革的必要性,并將其作為降低慢性病流行趨勢(shì)的一項(xiàng)重要政策。
發(fā)展中國(guó)家;健康轉(zhuǎn)變;非傳染性疾??;公共衛(wèi)生;危險(xiǎn)因素
中低收入國(guó)家慢性病的流行趨勢(shì)不容忽視,已經(jīng)影響到傳染病防治。[1-2]關(guān)于全球疾病負(fù)擔(dān)的報(bào)告中,進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)調(diào)了慢性病問題[3-6]及其所產(chǎn)生的經(jīng)濟(jì)影響[7]。直至近期,傳染病一直是全球衛(wèi)生策略的重點(diǎn)。但按照傷殘調(diào)整壽命年或者死亡率指標(biāo)進(jìn)行計(jì)算,除撒哈拉以南的非洲地區(qū)外,傳染病并不是構(gòu)成疾病負(fù)擔(dān)的主要因素。[8-9]除南亞和撒哈拉以南的非洲地區(qū)外,慢性病已經(jīng)造成了全球1559歲人群過半數(shù)死亡,相對(duì)而言,這些地區(qū)的艾滋病等傳染性疾病所導(dǎo)致的人群死亡數(shù)只占1/32/3。[10]然而,在撒哈拉以南的非洲地區(qū),慢性病也正日益成為主要的疾病負(fù)擔(dān)。[11]2001年全球疾病負(fù)擔(dān)研究報(bào)告顯示,該地區(qū)20%的死亡是由慢性病導(dǎo)致的。[12]圖1顯示了中低收入國(guó)家導(dǎo)致傷殘和死亡的前十種疾病類型,排名前三位的分別是心血管疾病、癌癥和損傷。[5,13]80%的慢性病死亡發(fā)生在中低收入國(guó)家,這不僅反映出這些國(guó)家的人口規(guī)模,也反映出流行病學(xué)模式正在從傳染病向慢性病轉(zhuǎn)變。[5]在撒哈拉以南的非洲地區(qū),心血管疾病不僅是慢性病和傷殘的主要原因,也是成年人死亡的第二大原因。心血管疾病死亡人數(shù)中約有半數(shù)是3069歲的成年人,人群年齡結(jié)構(gòu)比發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家小10歲,甚至更多。[11]最近的全球和地區(qū)疾病負(fù)擔(dān)分析報(bào)告顯示,中低收入國(guó)家超過半數(shù)的疾病負(fù)擔(dān)來源于慢性病,與1990年相比增長(zhǎng)了10%。1990—2001年,撒哈拉以南的非洲地區(qū)、歐洲和中亞地區(qū)的中低收入國(guó)家人均疾病負(fù)擔(dān)均有所增加。[12]2005年世界衛(wèi)生報(bào)告顯示,5 800萬(wàn)死亡人口中,約有60%死于慢性病,是傳染病死亡人數(shù)的2倍(如艾滋病、結(jié)核病和瘧疾等)。在中低收入國(guó)家,約有53.8%的死亡歸因于慢性病,而傳染病致死率約為36.4%。[12]與高收入國(guó)家相比,中低收入國(guó)家流行病學(xué)模式的轉(zhuǎn)變呈現(xiàn)了更短的周期。此外,發(fā)展中國(guó)家不僅要解決傳染病負(fù)擔(dān)和運(yùn)行較差的衛(wèi)生體系,還要面臨日益沉重的慢性病負(fù)擔(dān)[14-16],整體來說陷入了“與時(shí)間賽跑”的局面[3]。
圖1 不同疾病類型的傷殘調(diào)整生命年和死亡人數(shù)
發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家多年研究表明,大多數(shù)慢性病負(fù)擔(dān)主要?dú)w因于環(huán)境和生活方式等因素,如吸煙和運(yùn)動(dòng)量的減少。高收入國(guó)家之間慢性病危險(xiǎn)因素的不斷變化以及國(guó)內(nèi)疾病的長(zhǎng)期發(fā)展趨勢(shì)表明,慢性病的決定因素應(yīng)加以修正,并且許多慢性病是可以預(yù)防的。[17]雖然可以借鑒發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的經(jīng)驗(yàn),但發(fā)展中國(guó)家在慢性病研究方面仍然與發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家存在一定差距[18],以發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家為背景的研究成果并不一定適合其他背景的國(guó)家。因此,基于本地的研究至關(guān)重要。[19]目前關(guān)于慢性病防治的強(qiáng)有力證據(jù)大多來自于隨機(jī)臨床試驗(yàn),研究對(duì)象一般具有高度選擇性,即試驗(yàn)結(jié)果并不一定適合更廣泛的人群,從而導(dǎo)致得到的證據(jù)與實(shí)際適應(yīng)性之間存在沖突。[20]此類試驗(yàn)往往忽略了有效的干預(yù)措施是否具有可負(fù)擔(dān)性和人群推廣性。
“非傳染性疾病”一詞可與“慢性病”互用,是指心血管疾病、糖尿病、慢性呼吸系統(tǒng)疾病、癌癥、精神疾病和損傷。由于心血管疾病是全球范圍內(nèi)致死的主要病因,2005年占總死亡人數(shù)的30%[4],因此本文將著重探討中低收入國(guó)家心血管疾病的防治前景。
圖2描述了1988—1998年部分國(guó)家缺血性心臟病死亡率變化情況。各國(guó)之間的情況明顯不同,表明不同的環(huán)境因素是造成同一時(shí)期內(nèi)缺血性心臟病死亡率高低的主要原因。要理解中低收入國(guó)家慢性病的發(fā)展?fàn)顩r以及相應(yīng)的疾病負(fù)擔(dān),應(yīng)根據(jù)不同的環(huán)境狀況進(jìn)行相應(yīng)的背景分析。
圖2 1988—1998年部分國(guó)家3574歲人群缺血性心臟病死亡率變化情況(%)
在評(píng)價(jià)中低收入國(guó)家的營(yíng)養(yǎng)轉(zhuǎn)型時(shí),已有專家就對(duì)慢性病負(fù)擔(dān)的理解以及相關(guān)背景提出了一系列問題。Popkin曾經(jīng)質(zhì)疑:“在中低收入國(guó)家發(fā)生的肥胖、營(yíng)養(yǎng)過剩等慢性病與西歐國(guó)家、美國(guó)和日本以及同等經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平的國(guó)家之間存在差異嗎?[21]”答案傾向于:中低收入國(guó)家的經(jīng)歷與發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家存在很大差異,其中最為明顯的是由于出生率和死亡率的快速下降,中低收入國(guó)家面臨更加迅速的人口老齡化,這是其他高收入國(guó)家不曾經(jīng)歷的,也間接造成人群患慢性病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加。[22-23]此外,中低收入國(guó)家城市化和現(xiàn)代化進(jìn)程的不斷加快,以及經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平的巨大差異,使其與19世紀(jì)發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家慢性病的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)有所不同。更好地理解這些主要因素所發(fā)揮的作用將有助于制定基于本地實(shí)際情況的衛(wèi)生策略,從而更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)中低收入國(guó)家慢性病防控的目標(biāo)。
就不同國(guó)家、不同時(shí)期影響慢性病的背景因素,目前已存在一些觀點(diǎn)。[21]首先,這種變化所呈現(xiàn)出的獨(dú)特性主要?dú)w因于經(jīng)濟(jì)、技術(shù)和社會(huì)的快速轉(zhuǎn)型。其次,有關(guān)營(yíng)養(yǎng)缺乏和過剩問題,能在同一家庭里同時(shí)找到營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良和營(yíng)養(yǎng)過剩的病例,足以說明不同人群所面臨的壓力以及社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)變過程中的復(fù)雜性。[24-25]同時(shí),各國(guó)的政治環(huán)境也影響其防控慢性病的能力。[21]
這一分析應(yīng)基于中低收入國(guó)家目前普遍的實(shí)際情況,即城市化進(jìn)程不斷加快,并伴隨著高度的城市貧困化[26-28],而農(nóng)村貧困人口卻被日益邊緣化。目前,慢性病的社會(huì)危險(xiǎn)因素正從富裕人群向貧困人群擴(kuò)展。[29]在西非,進(jìn)口小麥和大米已經(jīng)取代了當(dāng)?shù)氐拇旨庸す任铮ㄐ∶缀透吡唬?,甚至坦桑尼亞地區(qū)的土著馬賽人也經(jīng)歷了飲食習(xí)慣上的迅速轉(zhuǎn)變,導(dǎo)致血液膽固醇增高。[30]在排除血脂和血壓等生物風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素的情況下,與慢性病有關(guān)的健康行為呈現(xiàn)出不同形態(tài),如吸煙行為因國(guó)家不同而明顯不同。因此各中低收入國(guó)家的慢性病患病率和致死率也存在明顯差異。[31]強(qiáng)大的慢性病社會(huì)模式促使我們超越單一和個(gè)人的危險(xiǎn)因素來尋求預(yù)防性措施。
慢性病的危險(xiǎn)因素包括社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)因素、可修正的行為因素和遺傳因素,在動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化、糖尿病等疾病中,不同的中間性病理生理學(xué)途徑都會(huì)對(duì)危險(xiǎn)因素產(chǎn)生影響。這些近端和遠(yuǎn)端危險(xiǎn)因素之間的關(guān)系十分復(fù)雜,包括風(fēng)險(xiǎn)鏈、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素聚集以及一種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(遺傳或非遺傳)對(duì)另一種風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素(遺傳或非遺傳)所造成的效應(yīng)修正??傊@些進(jìn)程會(huì)貫穿整個(gè)人類的生命歷程,并對(duì)疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)產(chǎn)生影響。[32]傳統(tǒng)的有關(guān)慢性病“衰退性”假說有利于成功確定成年人的近端病因(如吸煙與肺癌),但慢性疾病的“發(fā)展性”假說卻很少受到關(guān)注,特別是在發(fā)展中國(guó)家。有效的慢性病防控措施需要厘清國(guó)家、社區(qū)、家庭和個(gè)人等各方面危險(xiǎn)因素的因果關(guān)系。
慢性病病因?qū)W模型傾向于“衰退”進(jìn)程。[33]慢性阻塞性肺疾?。–OPD)即是最好的證據(jù),越來越多的環(huán)境(吸煙、職業(yè)輻射)和遺傳因素(阿爾法-1抗胰蛋白酶突變)導(dǎo)致成年人肺功能下降,慢性阻塞性肺疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)上升(圖3)。[34]
圖3 慢性病因果關(guān)系的生命歷程模式
“衰退”模式很少關(guān)注導(dǎo)致高峰或最佳基因表型狀態(tài)出現(xiàn)的進(jìn)程,但其通常是人類成年期的主要特征,如最大肺容量或峰值骨量。近期,“衰退”模式又將解剖學(xué)和病理學(xué)視為延遲疾病易感性的重要途徑。這種旨在理解疾病進(jìn)程的方法認(rèn)可了峰值表型狀態(tài)的重要性,并認(rèn)為這種狀態(tài)與慢性疾病的發(fā)展可能存在某些重要聯(lián)系,具體反映為世界衛(wèi)生組織推出的旨在研究人類老化的生命歷程方法。[35]這些慢性病因果回應(yīng)的發(fā)展模式與生物學(xué)動(dòng)機(jī)共同構(gòu)成了早期人類健康決定因素的論述。[36]
動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化被廣泛認(rèn)為從兒童時(shí)期就已經(jīng)開始發(fā)展,但這種潛伏性的危險(xiǎn)因素并未得到充分認(rèn)識(shí)。[37-38]Forsdahl強(qiáng)調(diào)較差的生活條件也是十分重要的因素[39],Barker等人利用“成人疾病的胎兒起源”假說對(duì)此觀點(diǎn)加以了改進(jìn),修正為“成人疾病之發(fā)展起源”理論[40-41]。流行病學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),人類出生時(shí)體重過輕與后來的心血管疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)之間存在聯(lián)系,即心血管疾病與其他疾病可以在母體通過持久內(nèi)分泌“加以規(guī)劃”,當(dāng)胎兒出現(xiàn)營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良時(shí)會(huì)影響胎兒的生理和新陳代謝。人類早期的飲食會(huì)導(dǎo)致某些疾病敏感度提升,因此,營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良和城市化成為中低收入國(guó)家心血管疾病發(fā)生演變并廣泛流行的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素。
有關(guān)限制飲食的動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)為心血管疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)因素提供了強(qiáng)有力證據(jù)[42],但一些極端的干預(yù)手段以及動(dòng)物與人類疾病之間的差異性限制了某些推論的產(chǎn)生。針對(duì)人類的觀察性研究所產(chǎn)生的間接證據(jù)也證明了營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良和心血管疾病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)之間的聯(lián)系:排除血壓、胰島素耐受性等危險(xiǎn)因素,出生體重與冠心病及中風(fēng)之間存在逆關(guān)聯(lián)[40-41,43-44]。南非、剛果等國(guó)家的證據(jù)也表明,低出生體重與兒童和成年期高血壓密切相關(guān)。[45-46]胎兒的身長(zhǎng)、體重或身體質(zhì)量指數(shù)過小都與其后來的疾病結(jié)果存在聯(lián)系。[47]人類成長(zhǎng)與心血管疾病之間的關(guān)系則更加復(fù)雜,嬰兒期生長(zhǎng)過快或過慢都會(huì)增加心血管疾病的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[47-48],然而詳細(xì)闡明這一關(guān)系還需要更多的證據(jù)支持。
盡管從動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)和人體研究都得到了強(qiáng)有力的間接證據(jù),但仍缺乏營(yíng)養(yǎng)學(xué)領(lǐng)域的直接證據(jù)來支持此假說。目前已經(jīng)開展的營(yíng)養(yǎng)學(xué)研究均未有力證明蛋白質(zhì)熱量減少會(huì)對(duì)孕期婦女和兒童血壓產(chǎn)生影響,并且也不足以說明營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良對(duì)人體的影響。[49]有學(xué)者對(duì)妊娠期蛋白質(zhì)缺乏和鈣質(zhì)缺乏會(huì)對(duì)后代血壓造成的影響進(jìn)行了研究,但結(jié)果卻出現(xiàn)了矛盾。[50-53]隨機(jī)證據(jù)顯示,嬰兒鈉鹽攝入與其短期內(nèi)的血壓情況關(guān)系較為緊密[54],但其對(duì)人體造成的長(zhǎng)期影響證據(jù)尚不充分。
有研究人員在中低收入國(guó)家進(jìn)行了出生跟蹤試驗(yàn),以期進(jìn)一步了解慢性病的發(fā)展原因。但研究發(fā)現(xiàn),對(duì)于大多數(shù)慢性病來說,早期生活暴露出來的諸多因素會(huì)在整個(gè)生命歷程中不斷累積[55],如提高婦幼衛(wèi)生健康狀況的措施可能會(huì)加快中低收入國(guó)家的老齡化,進(jìn)而可能導(dǎo)致慢性病的流行,也有可能通過更佳的早期生命營(yíng)養(yǎng)而規(guī)避成年后動(dòng)脈粥樣硬化的發(fā)生。
5.1 通過推廣專業(yè)知識(shí)和衛(wèi)生技術(shù)改善人群的健康狀況
過去70年來,國(guó)民財(cái)富和人口死亡率之間的關(guān)系急劇上升,后來出現(xiàn)停滯不前,但最近二者又開始出現(xiàn)向上偏移的趨勢(shì),即“普雷斯頓曲線”[56],這說明經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)并不意味著國(guó)民健康狀況的改善[56-59]。推廣專業(yè)知識(shí)和衛(wèi)生技術(shù)等外部因素與經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)同樣重要,這一理念對(duì)中低收入國(guó)家尤其重要。某些國(guó)家和地區(qū)的發(fā)展前景已出現(xiàn)明顯變化,如印度和古巴等國(guó)家的人均期望壽命雖然不如英國(guó)[60],但可以通過專業(yè)知識(shí)推廣和衛(wèi)生技術(shù)應(yīng)用實(shí)現(xiàn)期望壽命的增加。同時(shí),在衛(wèi)生服務(wù)提供過程中,要避免因地區(qū)、種族、職業(yè)、性別、宗教、教育、社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)地位等因素所造成的健康不平等現(xiàn)象的增加。[61]
5.2 降低人群健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)水平
專注于慢性病的決定因素會(huì)使人群的健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)水平呈現(xiàn)下降趨勢(shì)。[62-63]此類戰(zhàn)略已經(jīng)得到了《柳葉刀》雜志的贊同和支持,該雜志還呼吁開展慢性病防控的國(guó)際行動(dòng),包括世界衛(wèi)生組織貫徹執(zhí)行的煙草控制框架公約以及通過與食品行業(yè)簽訂自愿協(xié)議以降低食鹽的攝入。[64]然而,政府是否擁有政治意愿執(zhí)行以上措施,目前還存有疑慮,但仍有爭(zhēng)取的空間。如不丹政府通過采取極端的煙草防控措施,完全禁止煙草的進(jìn)口、銷售和使用,并成功付諸實(shí)施[65];毛里求斯也已實(shí)現(xiàn)采用棕櫚油完全代替大豆油,從而有效降低了人群中的血液膽固醇含量。[66]
5.3 降低個(gè)人對(duì)慢性病的易感性
隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)提供的強(qiáng)有力證據(jù)表明,降低個(gè)人患心血管疾病的有效手段包括降低血壓、膽固醇和避免吸煙。[67-68]然而,在中低收入國(guó)家這些措施很難付諸實(shí)踐。目前,關(guān)于慢性疾病的衛(wèi)生服務(wù)支離破碎,組織方面極其薄弱,還不足以應(yīng)對(duì)慢性病的挑戰(zhàn)。世界衛(wèi)生組織針對(duì)慢性病的提議,只是強(qiáng)調(diào)提高對(duì)慢性病負(fù)擔(dān)的認(rèn)知,包括患病人數(shù)和死亡人數(shù)[5]、經(jīng)濟(jì)影響[69]等。而針對(duì)發(fā)展中國(guó)家如何在符合成本效益的前提下貫徹執(zhí)行上述措施,其所作的努力十分有限。應(yīng)探索治療高血壓的方法以降低中風(fēng)和心臟病發(fā)病率,中低收入國(guó)家可以通過培訓(xùn)衛(wèi)生人員以推廣相關(guān)干預(yù)措施。[70]另一方面,應(yīng)培養(yǎng)良好的生活習(xí)慣,如控制飲食、加強(qiáng)體育鍛煉和戒煙等,這已經(jīng)成為南非國(guó)家全民慢病防控政策中的常規(guī)內(nèi)容。但也有證據(jù)表明,部分中低收入國(guó)家照搬發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的經(jīng)驗(yàn),未能對(duì)降低死亡率或發(fā)病率產(chǎn)生任何積極影響。[71]因此,中低收入國(guó)家應(yīng)該積極推廣符合成本效益的干預(yù)措施。
5.4 加強(qiáng)社區(qū)慢性病管理
管理并預(yù)防慢性?。ㄑ泳徣梭w功能衰退、避免并發(fā)癥、提高生命質(zhì)量)是衛(wèi)生服務(wù)面臨的一項(xiàng)重要挑戰(zhàn)。[72-74]個(gè)人或社會(huì)層面符合成本效益的干預(yù)措施應(yīng)充分考慮到文化背景的特殊性,并且需要全國(guó)范圍內(nèi)的相關(guān)證據(jù),從而為決策者提供比較可靠的干預(yù)手段。此外,還應(yīng)監(jiān)督和評(píng)估國(guó)家及地方政策的措施是否得到真正貫徹執(zhí)行。
應(yīng)評(píng)價(jià)慢性病防控所需的成本[9,64,68,75],對(duì)于中低收入國(guó)家來說,控制人群吸煙和減少食鹽攝入都是切實(shí)可行的干預(yù)策略。然而,針對(duì)個(gè)人的干預(yù)措施(如高血壓的藥物治療)和個(gè)人自付衛(wèi)生費(fèi)用仍是令人擔(dān)憂的主要問題,即使對(duì)衛(wèi)生體系較完善并提供全民免費(fèi)醫(yī)療的國(guó)家來說,在執(zhí)行過程中仍然面臨一些困難。[76]
目前關(guān)于中低收入國(guó)家公共衛(wèi)生干預(yù)措施(如監(jiān)督控?zé)煷胧┑挠绊?、食品加工過程中限制食鹽和飽和脂肪量的使用)以及家庭和個(gè)人干預(yù)措施(監(jiān)測(cè)并治療高血壓、戒煙、飲食和運(yùn)動(dòng))的研究較多。但這些干預(yù)措施僅適用于少數(shù)人群(即中低收入國(guó)家的城市高收入人群),而城市貧困人口和農(nóng)村人口雖然占據(jù)了較大比例,但針對(duì)這些人群的慢性病防控力度遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠。
過去50年來,社會(huì)各界通過有組織的措施在改善婦幼健康、防控并消滅主要傳染性疾病、控制人口等方面取得了巨大成就。目前我們?nèi)匀恍枰訌?qiáng)現(xiàn)有的衛(wèi)生體系,以提供綜合、可及并且以社區(qū)為基礎(chǔ)的家庭衛(wèi)生保健服務(wù)(包括預(yù)防、治療、康復(fù))。這需要對(duì)當(dāng)前的縱向衛(wèi)生規(guī)劃(如瘧疾、脊髓灰質(zhì)炎、結(jié)核病項(xiàng)目)重新整合,形成以家庭為導(dǎo)向的初級(jí)衛(wèi)生保健新模式。[77-78]建立新的縱向慢性病防治項(xiàng)目是一項(xiàng)高效的措施,可以保障國(guó)家衛(wèi)生系統(tǒng)的高效運(yùn)行。1978年,《阿拉木圖宣言》首次提出了初級(jí)衛(wèi)生保健的概念,目前世界衛(wèi)生組織通過加強(qiáng)衛(wèi)生體系使得初級(jí)衛(wèi)生保健得以復(fù)興,初級(jí)衛(wèi)生保健將是解決中低收入國(guó)家慢性病難題的主要手段。
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Non-communicable diseases in low-and m idd le-income countries:Context,determ inants and health policy
Miranda J J1,Kinra S1,Casas J P1,Davey Smith G2,Ebrahim S1
1.London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,London,UK 2.University of Bristol,Bristol,UK
The rise of non-communicable diseases and their impact in low-and middle-income countries has gained increased attention in recent years.However,the explanation for this rise ismostly an extrapolation from the history of high-income countrieswhose experience differed from the development processes affecting today’s low-and middle-income countries.this review appraises this difference in context to gain a better understanding of the epidemic of non-communicable diseases in low-andmiddle-income countries.Theories of developmental and degenerative determinants of non-communicable diseases are discussed to provide strong evidence for a causally informed approach to prevention.Health policies for non-communicable diseases are considered in terms of interventions to reduce population risk and individual susceptibility and the Research needs for low-income and middle-income countries are discussed.Finally,the need for health system reform to strengthen primary care is highlighted as amajor policy to reduce the toll of this rising epidemic.
Developing countries;Health transition;Non-communicable diseases;Public health;Risk factors
R197
Adoi:10.3969/j.issn.1674-2982.2013.10.003
2013-09-02
2013-09-20
(編輯 趙曉娟)
Jaime Miranda,男,教授,主要研究方向?yàn)槁圆×餍胁W(xué)。E-mail:jaime.miranda@lshtm.ac.uk
本文英文原文參見TropicalMedicine and International Health,2008,13(10):1225-1234,
10.1111/j.1365-3156.2008. 02116.x.