A Brief Discussion on the Development of the Silk-Weaving Industry Along the“Southern Silk Road” in Yunnan

Lin Kaiqiang

Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences

Abstract: Ancient Yunnan was one of the most significant regions along China’s ancient “Southern Silk Road.”During the Nanzhao period (738–902) of the late Tang Dynasty,Yunnan’s silk-weaving industry underwent a qualitative leap as skilled silk craftsmen from the Bashu area migrated to Yunnan and introduced mulberry planting,silkworm breeding,and advanced silk-weaving techniques from Sichuan to the region.Consequently,people in Yunnan gradually acquired expertise in brocade weaving and embroidery.Many even mastered complex silk-weaving techniques.The development and progress of the silk-weaving industry in the ancient Yunnan region were intricately linked to the economic function and value of silk as both a commodity and currency along the “Southern Silk Road.” The local government in ancient Yunnan was greatly motivated by the economic interests brought by the development of silk-related industries and recognized the significance of developing the local silk industry.They even initiated a campaign to capture skilled silk craftsmen from Sichuan,aiming to foster the growth of the silk-weaving industry in Yunnan.After years of dedicated efforts from the local government in ancient Yunnan,the region emerged as a significant hub for silk production along China’s ancient “Southern Silk Road.” Despite the devastation caused by the wars in other parts of the country,Yunnan’s silk industry continued to thrive and provide ample silk products to sustain trade along this renowned route.In the contemporary era,amidst the decline of the silk-weaving industry in eastern China,Yunnan has proposed an industrial development strategy known as “relocating the silk-weaving industry from east to west.” This involves introducing advanced silk production techniques from the eastern regions into Yunnan to enhance and enrich its local silk industry,thereby establishing it as a traditional national sector and securing a competitive position within the global silk market.The historical experience of Yunnan’s silk industry demonstrated that economic development opportunities can only be seized through proactive endeavors rather than passive anticipation.The modern Yunnan silk industry,which upholds its historical traditions,continues to actively engage in international high-end technical cooperation,thus ensuring the enduring vitality of the ancient “Southern Silk Road.”

Keywords: Southern Silk Road,Bashu area,Yunnan,silk-weaving technique

Introduction

Ancient Yunnan functioned as a key passage for China’s ancient “Southern Silk Road.” The “Southern Silk Road,” formerly known as theShu-YuanduRoad (“Shu”refers to today’s Sichuan province in China; “Yuandu” refers to today’s India),refers to the ancient trade route that stretches from Sichuan to India via Yunnan and Myanmar.This ancient trade route,with Dali city as its central hub,connects the Wuchidao ancient trade route,Bonan ancient trade road,and Yongchang ancient trade route in Yunnan.The dissemination and diffusion of Bashu silk products and weaving techniques in the ancient Yunnan region further consolidated Yunnan’s influence on China’s ancient “Southern Silk Road,” thereby providing substantial support for this renowned trade route.

Duality of Silk as Both a Commodity and Currency: Stimulus for the Development of the Silk-Weaving Industry in Ancient Yunnan

The Bashu area,historically renowned as “the land of sericulture and silk production,” has a long-standing tradition in the cultivation of mulberry trees and the manufacturing of silk products.From the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 B.C.– 771 B.C.) to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (770 B.C.– 476 B.C.),the people from the Central Plains and Shandong province who were familiar with sericulture farming migrated to the Bashu area.This led to a revitalization of local silk and linen textile production techniques in the Bashu area,resulting in increased production of silk products.As a result,silk products became significant export commodities in this region.During the Han and Three Kingdoms periods(202 B.C.–280),a significant number of highly skilled silk-weaving craftsmen were nurtured and cultivated in the Shu area,thanks to the technical transformation and innovation brought by craftsmen who immigrated from the Central Plains.This paved the way for the technological advancement of the silk-weaving industry in the Bashu area and led to the vigorous development of “Shu Brocade” (also known as “Sichuan Brocade”).Later,a prominent silk-weaving hub centered around Chengdu was established.During the Three Kingdoms period (220–280),the Shu Han government placed significant emphasis on the economic benefits generated by the trade of“Shu brocade,” establishing it as a bulk commodity in government-led transactions along the “Southern Silk Road.” During the Shu Han period (221–263),silk served as a currency along the “Southern Silk Road” and gained significant influence as a physical medium of exchange.It was widely utilized in various physical transactions.In the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127),with the revival of the silk-weaving industry in the Bashu area,Bashu silk once again regained its status as a medium of exchange in commodity trading along the “Southern Silk Road.” Yang Zuo’s BookRecords of Horse Procurement in Yunnanserves as compelling evidence that silk itself functioned as a kind of physical currency on the “Southern Silk Road” during the Song Dynasty.This book provides a detailed account of Yang Zuo,a resident of the Shu area,who transported silk to Yunnan as a substitute for high-quality horses during the Xining period (1068–1077) of the Northern Song Dynasty.This account further validates the existence of the “silk-for-horse trade” along the “Southern Silk Road” throughout both the Northern and Southern Song dynasties.The book also provides a comprehensive depiction of the whole process involved in such a business activity (Li,2003):

…In the seventh year of the Xining period of the Northern Song Dynasty,Emperor Shenzong of Song issued a decree to Chengdu’s administrative officials,instructing them to recommend talented individuals for the court in order to facilitate horse trade with the Southwest region.Yang Zuo,a jinshi①In ancient China,jinshi referred to a nominee who passed the highest-level Imperial Examinations.scholar from Emei,volunteered to join the cause.He sold his family property and rallied a group of tenant farmers who were suffering under oppressive landlords.Together,they formed a team of over ten individuals and sought permission to travel to Yunnan in order to trade Shu silk for high-quality horses there.Eventually,they reached the Kingdom of Nanzhao in Yunnan via the Xuhen area in the Jiazhou Region.The food they prepared was sufficient for ten days of journey,and they brought along an assortment of spices,salt,tea,ginger,and cinnamon.

Yang Zuo was appointed as the special personnel by the court to assume responsibility for exchanging Shu silk products for high-quality horses in Yunnan.He then recruited devoted followers to accompany him on the journey.He sold his family property and used the proceeds to buy a significant amount of silk products,which he then exchanged for high-quality horses in Yunnan.King Shumi of ancient Yunnan warmly embraced the introduction of Shu silk into this region (Li,2003):

…King Shumi had a great fondness for Shu silk,and he knew that Yang Zuo and his entourage’s visit to Yunnan was primarily for horse procurement; therefore,he graciously extended his hospitality to them.He treated the guests to a delectable feast of succulent mutton and pork while engaging in convivial conversations over spirits served in a jar with bamboo tubes in the evening...The day following Yang Zuo’s arrival in Yunnan,the King of Dali issued a command for all the chiefs under his jurisdiction to lead a grand military procession to welcome him and his entourage.Yang Zuo presented an official document to the king,clearly stating his purpose of visiting Yunnan to procure high-quality horses.Delighted by this news,the king graciously hosted them and offered them various forms of assistance.

According to the written records,King Shumi displayed a keen interest in Shu silk.In the trade activities in Yunnan,he undoubtedly recognized the significant value and lucrative economic gains associated with Shu silk.Consequently,he expressed great satisfaction with the substantial quantity of silk brought by Yang Zuo and warmly welcomed him and his entourage by bestowing generous gifts upon them.Later,King Shumi escorted Yang Zuo to Dali and presented him to the King of Dali,who also expressed great delight upon Yang Zuo’s arrival.The king promptly disseminated news of the “silk-for-horse trade” among his dependencies and urged them to swiftly gather high-quality horses for Yang Zuo’s selection and exchange.Acting under the court’s order,Yang Zuo not only successfully accomplished the mission of “silk-for-horse trade,” but more importantly,resolved the economic impasse between Yunnan and the inland regions.In the following year,chiefs from various regions of Yunnan proactively drove their horses to the Shu area for commercial purposes in accordance with the established agreement with Yang Zuo.

Surprisingly,the book also mentioned the post-road network connecting Yunnan with China’s inland regions,as well as India,the Indochina Peninsula,and other areas.This serves as concrete evidence substantiating the existence and prosperity of the “Southern Silk Road” (Li,2003):

…The King of Dali arranged for Yang Zuo and his entourage to be accommodated at the Yunnan Stage.In front of the stage,there stood a milestone,indicating that the stage extended to Xuzhou in the east,Yuandu (ancient India) in the west,Jiaochi (ancient Vietnam) in the southeast,Chengdu in the northeast,the snowy mountain in the north,and the sea in the south.The milestone meticulously documented mileage and road conditions for each route.Upon closer inspection,it becomes evident that this milestone has undergone several refinements.

The “Yunnan Stage” mentioned here refers to today’s Xiangyun county in Yunnan,which was considered an important stop on the “Southern Silk Road.”The post-road network extended across Southeast Asia and India,facilitating the flow of Bashu silk products to these regions and beyond.As a result,these silk products became coveted luxuries among the local elite and valuable commodities for generating profits.

The bookRecords of Horse Procurement in Yunnanundeniably provides substantial evidence for the existence of the “silk-for-horse trade” along the Southern Silk Road,while also confirming silk’s pivotal role as a medium for economic transactions on this route.The horses in the “Southern Silk Road” region primarily belonged to the Dali horse breed found in Yunnan,and regions such as Guangxi,Sichuan,Chongqing,and Guizhou all purchase horses from Yunnan by using various physical objects as substitutes.Historical records indicate that Yang Zuo made extensive efforts to acquire silk to procure horses in Yunnan,highlighting the widespread popularity and utility of silk as a physical currency.Various descriptions further demonstrated the economic significance of Bashu silk as a tangible currency in the Yunnan section of the ancient “Southern Silk Road.” For example,in the eighth volume of theBook of Yunnan,it reads (Fan,2007,p.1178):

In local transactions,currencies are not utilized; instead,silk serves as the unit of calculation for all transactions involving various silk products,felts,golds,silvers,rugs,cattle,and sheep.The value of a specific item is mutually agreed upon to be equivalent to several meters of silk.

It is evident that in Yunnan,the utilization of metallic currency is not customary.When engaging in trade involving commodities such as silk products,fur,gold and silver,jewelry,livestock,and others,the value of these goods is assessed based on their corresponding quantity of silk.This highlights the widespread recognition of silk as a physical currency for exchange along the “Southern Silk Road.” During that period,Yunnan had minimal utilization of metallic currency.In this region,silk not only served as a significant bulk commodity but also functioned as a form of currency.It served as the primary trading currency among various physical currencies used in barter.The demand for silk was high as it served as a significant bulk commodity in the “Southern Silk Road” region.The universality of silk as a physical currency is evident in the exchange of goods,where commodity holders typically choose to trade their goods for silk prior to utilizing it for purchasing what they need.As time elapsed,silk gradually attained the status of a universal medium of exchange in commercial activities along the “Southern Silk Road.”

The utilization of silk as a form of currency along the “Southern Silk Road”not only transcended domestic trade but also permeated overseas regions such as Southeast Asia,where silk was employed as a tangible medium of exchange for various commodities.In the bookA Brief Account of Island Barbarians,Wang Dayuan,a Chinese traveler from the Yuan Dynasty,vividly described his journeys to numerous island nations in Southeast Asia.Particularly,he documented the significant role of silk as a form of currency in the overseas section of the “Southern Silk Road” (Wang,2001):

In Jiaochi (ancient Vietnam),transactions were conducted using objects such as silk of various colors,blue fabric,ivory combs,papers,bronzes,and irons.In Chenla,the second dynasty in the history of Cambodia,transactions were conducted using objects such as gold and silver items,intricately designed glass balls in red and yellow colors,luxurious satin adorned with dragon motifs,Jianning Silk,and other silk fabrics.In Pengkeng (present-day northwest of Jingchuan county in Gansu province),transactions were conducted using silks of various colors.

The “Southern Silk Road” facilitated the transportation of silk from Sichuan and Yunnan to Vietnam,Myanmar,India,and other Southeast and South Asian nations,thereby witnessing the flourishing silk trade along this route.These phenomena not only strengthened the function of silk as physical currency but also catalyzed the growth of Yunnan’s local silk-weaving industry.

Introduction of Shu Silk-Weaving Techniques into Yunnan: Technical Support for the Development of the Local Silk-Weaving Industry in Ancient Yunnan

Due to Yunnan’s limited silk production capabilities,importing skilled silkweaving craftsmen from inland regions was essential.The method of introducing talents into Yunnan’s silk-weaving industry historically is straightforward and can be distilled into three primary strategies.

First,it can be attributed to the promotion of inland governments.The Shu Han government,operating under the assistance of Zhuge Liang,was the first inland government in history to promote silk-weaving techniques extensively in Yunnan.The Shu Han government promoted silk-weaving techniques to the south-central region,specifically encompassing the western areas of present-day Yunnan,Guizhou,Guangxi’s Tianlin,and some southwest parts of Sichuan.This region coincided with the central section of the ancient “Southern Silk Road,” thus making the diffusion of brocade weaving techniques particularly significant within ethnic group areas in the southwest region.Moreover,it propelled the “Southern Silk Road” further southward and exerted a profound influence on both material and cultural aspects of life among these ethnic minorities.In 223 AD,Zhuge Liang led the army to suppress the rebellion in the south-central region.Subsequently,he implemented strategic immigration policies along the borders to fortify border defense.When the Shu Han army marched to Tongren in Guizhou,the brocade craftsmen imparted their expertise to the local people and utilized indigenous kapok trees for dyeing,creating a fivecolor kapok brocade known as “Wuhou Brocade” among the Miao people (Zheng &Mo,2013):

When Zhuge Liang,the Lord of Wuhou,launched an attack on Tongren but failed to achieve a swift victory,the local children were afflicted with smallpox,resulting in numerous fatalities.Distressed by their plight,they beseeched Zhuge Liang for assistance.In response,Zhuge Liang imparted his knowledge of brocade weaving to them so that they could produce beddings and other necessities,hence giving rise to the name “Wuhou Brocade.”

Motivated by multiple factors,Bashu silk craftsmen gradually spread brocade and textile weaving techniques to neighboring regions,offering technical assistance for the development of the “Southern Silk Road.” In addition,unique regional silk products consistently emerged in various areas of Yunnan,and people of all ethnic groups in Yunnan proactively engaged in silk production activities.

At the same time,the folk craftsmen who had migrated also disseminated Chengdu’s exceptional brocade and agricultural techniques to the remote regions inhabited by southwest ethnic groups.When brocade weaving techniques were introduced to Liping and Jinping,the Dong people began to weave “Zhuge Dong Brocade” with five-color silk wool.Today’s Zhuang Brocade (commonly known as the “Guangxi Brocade,” including the Miao ethnic brocade,Dong ethnic brocade,and Yao ethnic brocade) has gradually evolved from the “Wuhou Brocade” and “Zhuge Dong Brocade.” At the same time,brocade production thrived in the south-central region,and silk production flourished in Yongchang county.As a result,the silk industry emerged as a key economic driver in the south-central region,generating substantial income.This bolstered military resources and contributed significantly to the country’s overall prosperity.TheZhugeBrocade Poemby Zhang Yingzhao illustrates Zhuge Liang’s efforts in promoting brocade weaving techniques in the ethnic group areas in southwest China (Zhu,2019,p.278):

During his southward expedition,the prime minister instructed the indigenous population in the cultivation of various crops.

Also,he taught the natives how to use iron farming implements and create beautiful silk fabrics,making the natives all dressed in clothes of multiple colors.

The clothing they wore was adorned with a wide range of intricate patterns,and the stitching was meticulous and well-distributed.

In these places,the indigenous women adorned their hair in elegant cone shapes,and exhibited exquisite embroidery skills.

Under the guidance of skilled inland craftsmen,the traditional costumes of indigenous people in Yunnan and Guizhou gradually became gorgeous and exquisite.Thus the embroidery skills of indigenous women were significantly enhanced.

Second,the local government of ancient Yunnan strategically utilized weaving craftsmen from the inland regions (particularly Sichuan) to foster the growth of the local silk-weaving industry through military means.Driven by the interests generated from the silk trade at the end of the Tang Dynasty,the local government of ancient Yunnan recognized the significance of developing the local weaving industry.Unable to produce high-quality silk products themselves,they resorted to capturing a group of skilled weaving craftsmen from Sichuan through warfare and gradually fostered the growth of their own silk-weaving sector.The Kingdom of Nanzhao invaded Sichuan several times,and on each occasion,they entered Chengdu and captured an immense number of women who were skilled in weaving brocade.

In 750,Ge Luofeng,the fifth monarch of the Kingdom of Nanzhao,successfully conquered and assimilated 32 prefectures inhabited by tribal communities,effectively integrating their populations into his kingdom.In 770,Yi Mouxun,the sixth monarch of the Kingdom of Nanzhao,launched military campaigns targeting regions such as present-day Liping county in Guizhou,Mao county,and Ya’an city in Sichuan.On each occasion,he captured a number of skilled silk craftsmen upon his return.In 829,the Kingdom of Nanzhao launched its largest military campaign against Chengdu,with the explicit objective of capturing the skilled weaving craftsmen,as documented in theRecords of Nanzhao in the New Book of Tang:

In the third year of the Dahe period (829) of the Tang Dynasty,the Kingdom of Nanzhao invaded Chengdu.They comforted and rewarded the residents while ensuring minimal disruption to the market and trade.Upon their return,they brought back tens of thousands of skilled women weavers and craftsmen to accompany them on their journey southwards.They asserted that their expertise in weaving rivaled that of the Tang Dynasty.

Through this military campaign,the Kingdom of Nanzhao captured a significant number of female weavers from Chengdu,directly facilitating the advancement of Yunnan’s silk-weaving industry.The “immigrants” in this campaign,who can be likened to prisoners of war,primarily consist of skilled craftsmen specializing in brocade weaving.With the exception of a few government-regulated brocade weavers,the majority are independent folk craftsmen who earn their livelihood through weaving.The arrival of Shu craftsmen in Yunnan holds great historical significance for the development of the silk industry in Yunnan and China as a whole.Despite certain advancements in the silk-weaving industry in the Kingdom of Nanzhao,people there still lack proficiency in mastering the intricate brocade weaving technique,necessitating further technical guidance from skilled women weavers.For instance,“LingluoSilk” represents a comparatively sophisticated variety of silk fabrics.While the people of the Kingdom of Nanzhao have the capability to produce relatively simplistic “ShiSilk” (a type of coarse silk fabric),they have not fully mastered the advanced weaving techniques required for intricate silk fabrics likeLing(satin),Luo(silk gauze),andJin(brocade).

At the end of the Ming Dynasty,peasant uprisings spread to Yunnan,facilitating the migration of skilled silk weavers from the Shu area to the region,thereby providing technical support for Yunnan’s emergence as a prominent hub within the weaving industry in southwest China.At the end of the Ming Dynasty,when the Daxi army led by Zhang Xianzhong retreated from Chengdu,they brought 30 (or 500) households of weavers to Yunnan (Peng,1982,p.163):

In the beginning,the Shu area gained prominence for its exquisite brocade production,and special brocade workshops were established for imperial use.Later,Shu was made a vassal state,and Zhu Chun was named the King of Shu,also known as the King Xian of Shu in history,who was eager to learn.He gathered skilled engravers from all over the country in Chengdu,resulting in an abundance of talented craftsmen in the Shu area.However,all the craftsmen were unfortunately killed when the city was invaded by the Daxi Army under the leadership of Zhang Xianzhong.

Another saying goes that only Sun Kewang,another important leader of the Daxi Army,gathered 30 weavers along with his troops and headed to Yunnan.The renowned Tonghai Duan,a kind of satin adorned with various intricate patterns,is a legacy passed down by these masterful brocade craftsmen.

Furthermore,following the uprising led by Zhang Xianzhong,a total of 500 households of weavers were forcibly relocated to Yunnan,resulting in only a small number remaining in the Shu area.

It can be seen from the above descriptions that the silk economy played a crucial role not only for the local government of Yunnan during the Nanzhao period but also for the peasant rebel army that sought refuge in Yunnan at the end of the Ming Dynasty.The Nanzhao army made concerted efforts to bring a significant number of skilled weaving craftsmen to their kingdom.The underlying reason lies in that they were eager to acquire advanced silk-weaving techniques in order to foster the local silk industry and achieve self-sufficiency in the realm of the silk economy.The peasant rebel army exiled to Yunnan at the end of the Ming Dynasty also sought silk-weaving techniques in order to acquire economic profits from silk production,thereby supplying their armies.It can be seen that the dominance of the silk economy on the “Southern Silk Road” persisted until the end of the Ming Dynasty,maintaining its primary economic position.

Third,after Yunnan was incorporated into the governance of the central government,successive dynasty officials in Yunnan actively promoted the sericulture industry,vigorously advancing its development.“The practice of sericulture has been consistently promoted by successive officials,leading to gradual improvements.Therefore,it is imperative to teach people how to plant mulberry trees and breed silkworms in order to promote this industry” (Compilation Committee of Local Chronicles of Yunnan Province,2003,p.830).During the Yuan Dynasty,when Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari served as the manager of governmental affairs (Pingzhang Zhengshi) of Yunnan,he actively promoted mulberry planting and silkworm breeding techniques from the inland regions (Compilation Committee of Local Chronicles of Yunnan Province,2003,p.832).In the 14th year of the Hongwu period of the Ming Dynasty (1381),following Mu Ying’s successful southern expedition to Pinglu,he dedicated ten years to consolidating and stabilizing the border regions in Yunnan.During this time,he established prefectures,fortified defenses,and advocated for developing agriculture and sericulture (Compilation Committee of Local Chronicles of Yunnan Province,2003,p.743).During the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty (1465–1487),the governor of Chuxiong Prefecture advocated planting mulberry and breeding silkworms and taught people to plant them and weave silk.

The Prosperous Cultivation of Mulberry Trees and Breeding of Silkworms in Ancient Yunnan Contributed to the Development and Advancement of Its Native Silk-Weaving Industry

The development and progress of Yunnan’s native silk-weaving industry were undeniably influenced by the commercial activities related to the silk trade along the ancient “Southern Silk Road.” The significant economic benefits generated by the silk trade incentivized successive dynasties and local governments in Yunnan to cultivate the local silk-weaving industry actively.Meanwhile,the arrival of inland silk-weaving craftsmen in Yunnan promoted the rapid development of Yunnan’s local silk-weaving industry.In the seventh volume of theBook of Yunnan,Fan Chuo provided a detailed account of the entire process of silk production,from mulberry cultivation to silkworm breeding and silk-weaving,during the Nanzhao period in Yunnan (Fan,2007,p.1864):

Yunnan lacks mulberry trees,and instead,the local inhabitants cultivate tricuspid cudrania extensively for sericulture purposes.Some villagers own several hectares of tricuspid cudrania,with their tall trunks reaching several feet high.The silkworm hatches in early March and undergoes metamorphosis into a cocoon by mid-month.The reeling technique employed in this region differs from that used in inland regions.The finest ones are utilized for the production of Siling (damask silk),as well as for weaving Jin (brocade) and Juan (a kind of tough silk).The silk products woven with threads of red and purple are regarded as elegant and noble.These silk products are distinguished by their intricate patterns,meticulous weaving techniques,and impressive modes of picture composition.The local minorities and their families are prohibited from utilizing such silk products for cloth-making.The Juan silk showcases a tough weaving technique and is exclusively woven using unprocessed raw silk in its natural hue.Such silks are predominantly utilized for crafting mantles,which serve as attire for the poor.The King of Nanzhao and his officials all have a fondness for silk products,which often feature exquisite embroidery.Additionally,they particularly enjoy using silk to create cloth adorned with tiger motifs.

Since Ge Luofeng’s military campaign to capture silk weavers from Sichuan and bring them into Yunnan,the sericulture and silk-weaving techniques in Yunnan have become increasingly sophisticated.Against this backdrop,Yunnan’s silk-weaving techniques made significant advancements,and its silk products gained recognition in society.In hisCommentary on Poetry,Ouyang Xiu recorded an occurrence (Ouyang & Shi,2009,p.198):

Su Shi,whose courtesy name is Zizhan,was a scholar from the Shu area.He once bought a silk bow case from the supervisor of salt,which was made by a dweller of the southwest minority group.On the bow case,there was a poem named “Poem to Spring Snow” by Mei Shengyu.This poem is not among the most widely recognized ones in Mei Shengyu’s Poem Collections.Nevertheless,given Mei’s mastery of poetry,even his lesser-known works have been disseminated to the minority communities in the southwest region.Zizhan knows that I am acquainted with Shengyu,so he kindly sent it to me after purchasing it.Coincidentally,I happened to have an ancient string at home,which was crafted by Lei Hui during the Baoli period (827 AD).This string is remarkably exquisite and produces a clear and melodious tune akin to striking a stone.…So,I repurposed this bow case as a bag for the string,and these two items are my most prized possessions.

The bow case purchased by Su Shi encapsulates a wealth of cultural implications.The bow case is skillfully woven by individuals from the ethnic group in the southwest region.Despite its origin,the craftsmanship is exquisite,and the embroidered pattern on the bow case depicts Mei Shengyu’sPoem to Spring Snow,showcasing both the weaver’s and the user’s refined taste.Later,Su Shi presented this bow case to Ouyang Xiu,who cherished it as his “most prized possession” and used it to store his favorite ancient string.This demonstrates that by the Northern Song Dynasty,weaving craftsmen from Yunnan had attained advanced silk-weaving techniques and were able to produce superb embroidery products that met the aesthetic taste of people in the Central Plains.The robust growth of Yunnan’s silk industry has facilitated the advancement of this sector within Yunnan’s ethnic minority communities.As a result,the “Dai ethnic brocade” prevailing in the Dehong area of Yunnan,a focal point along the “Southern Silk Road,” emerged accordingly.

The Dehong area in Yunnan,serving as a crucial link between China’s inland region and the South Asian Subcontinent,as well as the Indochina Peninsula,thrived due to its flourishing silk trade,which had a profound impact on the Dai people.The renowned“Southern Land Silk Road” has long served as a conduit for the continuous introduction and exchange of Shu brocade,the primary silk fabric in inland regions.As a result,the silk-weaving techniques from these regions greatly influenced and propelled the rapid development and improvement of local Dai ethnic brocade in the Dehong area,significantly elevating its production techniques and standards (Zhu,1990,p.623).In terms of finished products,Dehong’s Dai ethnic brocade backpack showcases a higher level of craftsmanship; in terms of fabric texture,a distinctive Dai ethnic brocade has emerged in the Dehong area by incorporating golden threads into the weave (unlike the Dai brocade in Xishuangbanna,which is predominantly woven with pure cotton yarn),resulting in vibrant and intricate patterns.In terms of artistic characteristics,the Dai ethnic brocade from Dehong inherits the style of Han-dynasty brocade,characterized by daring color combinations that predominantly feature dark hues as the base with accents of red,green,yellow,blue,and other colors.Its patterns primarily consist of geometric shapes such as diamonds,squares,and hexagons,exuding an essence of simplicity and elegance with a distinct ethnic style.

Modern Inheritance: The Modern Development and Progress of Yunnan’s Silk- Weaving Industry

The silk-weaving industry in Yunnan continues to be highly esteemed by the government in modern times.Furthermore,with the advancements in technology in modern times,the silk-weaving industry in Yunnan has experienced robust growth.During the late Qing Dynasty,from the 29th to the 33rd year of the Guangxu period (1903–1907),significant emphasis was placed on the study and advancement of Yunnan’s silk-weaving techniques in industrial schools.Under the promotion of the New Policies of the late Qing Dynasty,the Middle Agricultural School emerged as the most successful industrial institution.It was divided into sericulture,forestry,and agriculture departments,complemented by an additional department dedicated to dyeing and weaving.Of these three departments,it is recorded that “sericulture was given priority when establishing the institution as it was imperative to develop an industry that suited local conditions” (Yu,2008,p.4).A large number of historical materials from this period have substantiated the paramount importance and utmost significance of silkworm education.Under the promotion of Wu Xizhong,president of Yunnan Agricultural Society,the Agricultural School actively promoted the technical education of modern mulberry planting and sericulture.Wu Xizhong believed that “The key to enhancing national agriculture lies in the development of sericulture,afforestation,and other related endeavors” (Yu,2008,p.4),emphasizing the necessity for promoting scientific experiments in rural areas.He placed great emphasis on the development of the sericulture industry and made it a top priority in Yunnan’s education realm.At the inception of the Republic of China (1912),Wu Xizhong sequentially established multiple institutions in Luliang to provide guidance on mulberry planting and silkworm breeding,including the Industrial Education Institute (Quanyyesuo),the Industrial Association (Shiyetuan) and the Sericulture School (Sangxuetang) (Compilation Committee of Local Chronicles of Yunnan Province,2003).

The provincial government of Yunnan issued theRegulations on Promoting theEstablishment of Sericulture and Forestry Industrial Associations,which mandates that each prefecture and county appoint a deputy head and a supervisor,while each village should have a designated leader.Additionally,they have distributed theManual for Mulberry PlantingandIllustration to Mulberry Plantingin every village to disseminate knowledge about mulberry cultivation.Furthermore,it is required that each county establish exemplary mulberry gardens and sericulture practice institutes to facilitate the exchange and promotion of experiences related to mulberry planting and silkworm breeding,thereby expanding the scale of the sericulture industry.On this basis,a silk reeling factory was set up in Kunming,aiming to gather cocoons for subsequent processing and ultimately exporting them overseas.By 1914,the province’s annual production of fresh cocoons exceeded 310,000 kilograms,valued at 189,000 silver yuan.This significant contribution greatly supplemented the farmers’ economy (Yu,2008,p.4).It can be seen that the silk-weaving industry in Yunnan,propelled by the modern government and bolstered by advanced technology,has evolved into a pivotal foundational sector of the province that endures to this day.

The silk-weaving industry in Yunnan has not declined amidst modern economic development but rather emerged as a prominent player in the domestic silk industry and continued to thrive,thus revitalizing the ancient “Southern Silk Road” once again.This primarily benefits from the industrial development strategy known as “relocating the silk-weaving industry from east to west,” which pertains to the transfer of the silk-weaving industry in China’s eastern coastal areas.The transfer of the silk-weaving industry to Yunnan is not only a strategic choice for the sustainable development of the national economy amidst industrial adjustments in the eastern region but also serves as a catalyst for driving modern transformation and breakthroughs within Yunnan’s traditional silk-weaving sector.

In the contemporary era,the sericulture industry in Yunnan is predominantly concentrated in over 30 counties located in the central,southern,eastern,and northeastern regions of the province.Specifically,it is highly concentrated in Qiaojia,Luliang,Zhanyi,Dayao,Jingdong,Zhenxiong,Chuxiong,Yao’an,Heqing,Baoshan,and other areas.The economic data of 2012 demonstrated the accomplishments of Yunnan’s modern silk-weaving industry amidst the implementation of the strategy to relocate the silk-weaving industry from east to west (Li,2013,pp.52–55):

In 2012,the cultivated area of mulberry trees in Yunnan reached 96,800 hectares,representing an increase of 0.2 percent compared to the previous year.A total of 1,001,800 silkworm eggs were distributed in the year,with an actual breeding capacity of 1,122,000,an increase of 119,200 from 2011.The cocoon production amounted to 41,900 tons,reflecting an increase of 5,500 tons over the previous year.The annual average unit price of cocoons ranges from RMB 29 to RMB 41 per kilogram,with the sales revenue amounting to approximately RMB 1.572 billion.There are a total of 12 silk reeling factories in the province,with a silk reeling capacity of 42,000 threads.In 2012,these factories produced a total of 2,004.84 tons of white silk,along with 720,000 meters of silk fabric and 225.6 tons of silk quilts.As a result,they achieved an industrial output value worth around RMB 850 million.

The extensive and profound foundation of the modern sericulture industry in Yunnan has played a crucial role in directly supporting these remarkable economic achievements.The following analysis will delve into the foundations of Yunnan’s sericulture industry,followed by an in-depth exploration of its significance for both local livelihoods and international competitiveness:

Table 1.Specific Data on the Sericulture Industry in Counties of Yunnan in Recent Years (2018-2022) ①Data resource: http://www.cir.cn/7/90/sichouweilaifazhanqushi.htm/

The modern sericulture industry in Yunnan was gradually established by capitalizing on the strategic opportunity to relocate the silk-weaving industry from east to west in 2002.In terms of ensuring the safety and stability of our national economic and industrial structure,the resurgence of sericulture in Yunnan has effectively safeguarded our traditional national industry.In terms of enhancing the livelihoods within local society in Yunnan,it plays a crucial role in revitalizing modern rural areas.The grassroots population generates labor value through their involvement in the sericulture industry,thereby improving their own economic conditions and actively participating in modern economic activities.In terms of competing within the international silk-weaving industry,Yunnan actively participates in the contemporary “Southern Silk Road”international and regional competition while simultaneously facing challenges posed by the competition in the global silk industry.Surprisingly,the main international silk producers are predominantly located in regions deeply influenced by the ancient “Southern Silk Road,” namely South Asia,Southeast Asia,the Middle East,Africa,and other areas.With the robust support of the United Nations as well as countries such as Japan and South Korea,certain countries in these regions are actively developing the silk industry.Among them,India has emerged as the world’s second-largest silk producer and the largest consumer.With Japan’s technical support,the country is capable of producing 2A–4A grade silk using raw materials,while Italy’s technical assistance has improved the performance of its finished products,demonstrating exceptional quality in clothing materials.This inevitably presents a challenge to Yunnan’s silk industry.Therefore,the silk-weaving industry in Yunnan should draw lessons from historical experience,actively adopt internationally advanced technology,and engage in international technical cooperation to enhance its competitive edge.From September 18 to 22,2023,the Italian Silk Association,as the vice chairperson unit of the International Silk Union,organized representatives from Italian silk enterprises and institutions for a visit to China aimed at fostering exchange and cooperation in the silk industry between China and Italy.Yunnan was specifically chosen as their destination to explore China’s high-quality sericulture silk production base and facilitate visits and interactions among member enterprises of the International Silk Union.Through the collaborative efforts of Chinese and Italian experts,this visit is expected to facilitate phased progress in the study of the life cycle of cocoon silk.With continuous support from the International Silk Union,China and Italy will further enhance their exchange of silk-weaving techniques,encourage more participation from silk enterprises,and actively promote international recognition of related research results(Secretariat of International Silk Union,2023).

Conclusion

Yunnan holds a highly significant position along the ancient “Southern Silk Road.”Geographically,it shares a border with India,and the development of its local silk industry greatly contributed to the growth of the “Southern Silk Road.” Therefore,despite historical disruptions in trade between China’s inland regions and Yunnan due to warfare,Yunnan has managed to maintain the production and export of local silk products,ensuring uninterrupted trade with India and Myanmar.Consequently,the “Southern Silk Road” has remained unbroken,facilitating the dissemination of the silk-weaving techniques to residents of the South Asian Subcontinent and Indo-China Peninsula while fostering knowledge exchange and achievement sharing.Amidst the modern economic development,the domestic and international opportunities and challenges faced by Yunnan’s silk-weaving industry lie in how to strategically deepen and expand the ancient“Southern Silk Road” within the contemporary domestic and international environment.