風(fēng)景園林學(xué)習(xí)者中心教學(xué)法：以謝菲爾德大學(xué)碩士畢業(yè)設(shè)計課程專項項目為例

著：（德）?？ㄌ亍ぬm格 （荷）揚·沃德斯特拉 譯：陸熹

0 引言

從場地設(shè)計的微觀環(huán)境，到區(qū)域景觀的宏觀層面，風(fēng)景園林和環(huán)境設(shè)計學(xué)科在不同尺度上改善了人居環(huán)境。在高等教育中，風(fēng)景園林作為一門專業(yè)實踐性學(xué)科，需要兼顧教學(xué)與科研，并專注于培養(yǎng)風(fēng)景園林行業(yè)所需的專業(yè)人才。與建筑學(xué)類似，風(fēng)景園林學(xué)科是當(dāng)前研究型大學(xué)教育中一種較為特殊的存在[1]。約200年前，威廉·馮·洪堡（Wilhelm von Humboldt，1767—1835）提出了“研究與教學(xué)相統(tǒng)一”的原則，該原則已成為現(xiàn)代大學(xué)的基本宗旨。所謂“教研合一”，其核心是研究型教學(xué)，并通過研究汲取可轉(zhuǎn)移的知識技能。這也正是謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林教育體系的核心價值觀所在，其目標(biāo)在于培養(yǎng)以下幾類從業(yè)者：1）具有多種專業(yè)技能、應(yīng)用能力和職業(yè)道德的研究人員；2）善于解決問題的開拓者；3）具有全局視野與靈活性的團(tuán)隊合作者；4）獨立的學(xué)習(xí)者；5）具有批判性和創(chuàng)造性的思辨者。為培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的自主性和獨立性，以使其勝任職業(yè)市場的相關(guān)需求，謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系在碩士畢業(yè)學(xué)年課程項目中著重采用學(xué)習(xí)者中心教學(xué)法[2]，筆者介紹了該方法的實施過程并進(jìn)行批判性的反思與探討。

1 風(fēng)景園林學(xué)

“風(fēng)景園林”（landscape architecture）這一提法首次出現(xiàn)于19世紀(jì)初，最初被賦予“景觀建筑設(shè)計”等一系列不同定義與內(nèi)涵，而后在持續(xù)的業(yè)務(wù)實踐中逐漸形成了如今的風(fēng)景園林行業(yè)。弗雷德里克·勞·奧姆斯特德（Frederick Law Olmsted，1822—1903）首次提出了“風(fēng)景園林師”的概念，他最初從事公園和花園設(shè)計，隨后也在城市規(guī)劃和綠道規(guī)劃等方面開展工作。此后，風(fēng)景園林在學(xué)科發(fā)展方向與內(nèi)涵上有了進(jìn)一步的擴(kuò)展，比如除“風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計”方向外，英國還認(rèn)可了“風(fēng)景園林科學(xué)與管理”方向[3]，英國風(fēng)景園林行業(yè)社團(tuán)組織——英國皇家風(fēng)景園林學(xué)會（Landscape Institute, LI）也將“風(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃”認(rèn)定為該領(lǐng)域的重要方向。學(xué)生在修完LI認(rèn)證的相關(guān)課程后，可以免除部分專業(yè)資格考試并直接從事相關(guān)實踐工作。風(fēng)景園林專業(yè)的初學(xué)者往往難以充分理解學(xué)科所涉及的多領(lǐng)域知識，這有待于他們在學(xué)習(xí)過程中逐步領(lǐng)悟并不斷深化，進(jìn)而掌握專業(yè)實踐所需的各種專業(yè)知識以及可應(yīng)用于不同職業(yè)、生活領(lǐng)域的可轉(zhuǎn)移技能。相關(guān)專業(yè)的學(xué)生在畢業(yè)后，其職業(yè)規(guī)劃既可以是在多領(lǐng)域全面發(fā)展實踐，也可以是在特定領(lǐng)域研究深耕，因此風(fēng)景園林教育需要充分考慮并兼顧這2種情況。

2 謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系歷史沿革

英國謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系成立于1969年，立足于滿足不斷變化發(fā)展的風(fēng)景園林教育需求。開創(chuàng)性地采用了基于實踐項目的課程教學(xué)法，后被稱為“謝菲爾德模式”。風(fēng)景園林、建筑學(xué)、城鎮(zhèn)與區(qū)域規(guī)劃，均曾為謝菲爾德大學(xué)建筑學(xué)院下設(shè)的諸多專業(yè)分支，在之后的院系改革中，風(fēng)景園林專業(yè)獨立成系，并和建筑學(xué)、城鎮(zhèn)與區(qū)域規(guī)劃等其他系共同隸屬于社會科學(xué)學(xué)院。這種新型的組織安排允許各院系獨立研究，也可以跨院系開展合作，為專業(yè)教育和實踐帶來了很大的靈活性[4]。

謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系的成立，最初得益于英格蘭北部商業(yè)廣播機(jī)構(gòu)——格拉納達(dá)電視臺及相關(guān)私人組織的資助。該組織認(rèn)為，在后工業(yè)時代背景下，風(fēng)景園林對于土地生態(tài)修復(fù)和提升人居環(huán)境具有重要作用，因此希望尋找具有大規(guī)模生態(tài)修復(fù)經(jīng)驗的專業(yè)人士領(lǐng)導(dǎo)院系并開設(shè)課程。阿諾德·韋德爾（Arnold Weddle，1924—1997）是一名專業(yè)建筑師和城市規(guī)劃師，同時對景觀設(shè)計和教育也頗有研究。自1956年起，他便在利物浦大學(xué)城鎮(zhèn)與區(qū)域規(guī)劃系教授景觀設(shè)計課程，并活躍在風(fēng)景園林專業(yè)團(tuán)體（后更名為風(fēng)景園林師協(xié)會），從事城市規(guī)劃與景觀相關(guān)的實踐咨詢工作。1969年謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系建立時，他受邀擔(dān)任首位系主任，并在1974年創(chuàng)辦了本學(xué)科頂級期刊——Landscape and Urban Planning，并擔(dān)任該刊主編直至1990年。

韋德爾在大規(guī)模土地生態(tài)修復(fù)方面具有豐富的專業(yè)經(jīng)驗，其認(rèn)為修復(fù)的關(guān)鍵因素在于了解污染和生態(tài)的本質(zhì)。他也和院系內(nèi)不同專業(yè)背景的學(xué)者合作，開展生態(tài)修復(fù)、發(fā)電站規(guī)劃、新城建設(shè)以及海洋保護(hù)等方向的專業(yè)實踐。韋德爾在謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系的研究與工作方式延續(xù)了他此前在利物浦時的模式。英國的城鎮(zhèn)與區(qū)域規(guī)劃系起源于利物浦大學(xué)，前身為1908年成立的城市設(shè)計系（Department of Civic Design），吸引了一大批國際生源。在20世紀(jì)60年代以前，城鎮(zhèn)與區(qū)域規(guī)劃系的課程設(shè)置通常基于實踐項目，學(xué)生可自行選擇聚焦于城市或鄉(xiāng)村區(qū)域，以小組為單位進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)化的場地調(diào)研、評估，并解決大尺度的規(guī)劃問題。

在當(dāng)時謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系兩年制的碩士課程中，韋德爾也沿用了在利物浦大學(xué)執(zhí)教時的研究型教學(xué)方法與課程體系。該課程體系匯聚了來自建筑學(xué)、土木工程、地理、城鎮(zhèn)規(guī)劃、農(nóng)學(xué)、植物學(xué)、林學(xué)、園藝等不同學(xué)科背景的學(xué)生，覆蓋4個主要方向的課程，旨在使學(xué)生對地質(zhì)生態(tài)環(huán)境、土地利用、風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計及景觀營造維護(hù)具備全面的背景認(rèn)知。這一課程體系持續(xù)調(diào)整內(nèi)涵，先后被稱作專項研究（Special Studies）和個人項目工作（individual project work），目前稱為專項項目（Special Project）。韋德爾在蒙特利爾國際風(fēng)景園林師聯(lián)合會（IFLA）會議上介紹了這一創(chuàng)新課程，并深信“謝菲爾德模式”將在世界范圍內(nèi)被廣泛運用[5]。

在碩士課程體系的基礎(chǔ)上，風(fēng)景園林系陸續(xù)開設(shè)了大量的本科生課程。隨著教研一體化的推進(jìn)，其規(guī)模日益壯大，此后謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系成為英國規(guī)模最大且唯一單獨設(shè)立的風(fēng)景園林系。相關(guān)課程的設(shè)置也根據(jù)行業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢不斷進(jìn)行深化改革。例如，近年來通過將考取兩年制碩士課程的學(xué)生（MA in Landscape Architecture）與在本校就讀本科和一年制碩士課程的學(xué)生（Master in Landscape Architecture）進(jìn)行混合授課，實現(xiàn)跨學(xué)科交流，促進(jìn)小組合作，推動專項項目的有序發(fā)展。

3 謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系碩士畢業(yè)學(xué)年課程安排

謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系在碩士畢業(yè)學(xué)年著重實施了學(xué)習(xí)者中心教學(xué)法，由學(xué)生自主選擇不同的課題，并在風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理3個方向中選擇特定的方向深入發(fā)展。在學(xué)期伊始，學(xué)生需要確定感興趣的風(fēng)景園林學(xué)科方向，并以此為依據(jù)選擇對應(yīng)的課程；同時在設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理3個方向的工作坊中選擇某一方向或某2個方向協(xié)同開展深入研究。根據(jù)學(xué)生的發(fā)展方向選擇、總?cè)藬?shù)及課程偏好，每個學(xué)科方向都會配備相應(yīng)數(shù)量的導(dǎo)師。

第一學(xué)期，學(xué)生需從“城市風(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃、設(shè)計與藝術(shù)實踐、風(fēng)景園林管理”以及“鄉(xiāng)村景觀規(guī)劃、城市設(shè)計項目、綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施維護(hù)”兩大類選修課程中分別選修一門課程（表1）。

表1 畢業(yè)學(xué)年的課程結(jié)構(gòu)Tab. 1 The structure of the final year

此外，在“專項項目：研究和發(fā)展”課程中，學(xué)生需要自選場地，該場地具有亟待風(fēng)景園林師解決的問題，并以此為依據(jù)制定項目簡介。這一課程可視為專項項目的前期研究，為學(xué)生在第二學(xué)期項目的順利開展奠定堅實基礎(chǔ)。項目簡介需要涵蓋場地概況，擬開發(fā)或重建內(nèi)容，項目背景和現(xiàn)狀分析，制定設(shè)計、規(guī)劃或管理的主要內(nèi)容，闡明專項項目的合理性及解決措施（圖1）。學(xué)生在撰寫項目簡介時，需要對基礎(chǔ)科學(xué)、政策和理論研究等不同內(nèi)容進(jìn)行深入分析，并對已有先例進(jìn)行批判性評述。這一課程旨在鍛煉學(xué)生為專項項目制定切實可行的戰(zhàn)略愿景，并能夠明確響應(yīng)場地的特征及其背景。課程中導(dǎo)師與學(xué)生互相匹配，在導(dǎo)師指導(dǎo)并提供反饋的情況下，項目簡介由學(xué)生獨立完成。

1 項目簡介的結(jié)構(gòu)示意，由學(xué)生撰寫并作為專項項目的指導(dǎo)性文件Example of the structure of a project brief. It is written by the students and functions as the guiding document for the Special Project

4 畢業(yè)學(xué)年設(shè)計工作坊：專項項目

設(shè)計工作坊是風(fēng)景園林教育的靈魂所在。不同于物理、化學(xué)等基于公式和定理的傳統(tǒng)理工類學(xué)科，設(shè)計工作坊的教學(xué)方式較為靈活。在風(fēng)景園林教學(xué)中往往存在一種“一刀切”的模式，即先由導(dǎo)師選擇場地并界定問題，再由學(xué)生對同一場地提出不同的競爭性設(shè)計方案。而在本案例中，謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系開創(chuàng)性地提出了一種教學(xué)模式，由學(xué)生自主選擇、設(shè)計項目場地，界定研究問題并分析其合理性。學(xué)生選擇發(fā)展方向（設(shè)計、規(guī)劃或管理）后，與該學(xué)科方向的導(dǎo)師組進(jìn)行配對，并與同一方向的學(xué)生結(jié)對成組。學(xué)生人數(shù)和發(fā)展方向的志愿選擇每年會有變化，通常一位老師需要輔導(dǎo)5～10名學(xué)生，每周進(jìn)行一次設(shè)計研討（圖2）。同時，校外導(dǎo)師也會受邀開展實例分析和實操訓(xùn)練，提供額外的教學(xué)內(nèi)容以激發(fā)學(xué)生的設(shè)計靈感。

2 在戶外公園開展的一對一討論課程，由校外導(dǎo)師約翰·杰夫科克和本文作者?？ㄌ亍ぬm格（中）組織，學(xué)生互相評圖Tutorial in the Special Project held outside in a park, with external tutor John Jeffcock and Eckart Lange (centre),students peer reviewing their work

專項項目旨在考查學(xué)生是否具備進(jìn)入風(fēng)景園林實踐行業(yè)的專業(yè)素質(zhì)。學(xué)生需要在2個學(xué)期內(nèi)以專業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)獨立完成從項目簡介到最終匯報的全部流程。如前文所述，在第一學(xué)期學(xué)生需撰寫完成項目簡介，而第二學(xué)期的有關(guān)課程歷時12周，并設(shè)有中期和期末考核。中期考核權(quán)重為25%，由該學(xué)生的輔導(dǎo)老師和同一研究方向的另外一組的導(dǎo)師進(jìn)行評審。期末考核（圖3）權(quán)重為75%。除了上述2位導(dǎo)師外，還會有一位校外導(dǎo)師參與答辯評審。

3 在期末考核前，所有教師一起瀏覽該年級全部學(xué)生的作業(yè)，了解學(xué)生工作的總體情況Before the final review all academic staff are looking at the projects of the entire year group in order to get an overview of the kind of work that will be examined

由于學(xué)生選擇的學(xué)科方向存在差異，他們的專項項目在尺度、規(guī)模及重點上也有所不同。例如，設(shè)計方向的項目的尺度通常在1∶50～1∶500（圖4-1）。教學(xué)任務(wù)書需要學(xué)生充分理解植被、水、地形和結(jié)構(gòu)等風(fēng)景園林表現(xiàn)形式、過程和構(gòu)成，了解風(fēng)景園林對社會、生態(tài)和文化維度的潛在影響，并通過創(chuàng)造性和響應(yīng)性的設(shè)計方法來進(jìn)行可持續(xù)的環(huán)境設(shè)計。選擇設(shè)計–管理方向的學(xué)生（圖4-2）需要將富有創(chuàng)造性的設(shè)計過程和項目實施必不可少的管理環(huán)節(jié)結(jié)合起來。設(shè)計–管理方向的項目通常和純設(shè)計方向的項目在同一尺度上進(jìn)行相關(guān)設(shè)計，此外還需要制定中短期的項目管理計劃，包括在現(xiàn)場管理和開發(fā)方面的“隱形”管理，例如教育發(fā)展計劃、護(hù)林員服務(wù)管理、市場營銷以及員工培訓(xùn)等。在進(jìn)行戰(zhàn)略性規(guī)劃或總體規(guī)劃的大型專項規(guī)劃設(shè)計時，學(xué)生往往需要在1∶10 000～1∶25 000尺度上進(jìn)行項目設(shè)計（圖4-3）。課題通常包括環(huán)境適應(yīng)性變化與可持續(xù)發(fā)展問題，如綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施營造、城市更新以及大型城市新建住宅計劃等新型開發(fā)建設(shè)（總圖比例不超過1∶1 000）。

5 論文

學(xué)生在專項項目結(jié)束后需在暑期完成碩士論文的撰寫。論文寫作旨在培養(yǎng)學(xué)生自主學(xué)習(xí)和研究的習(xí)慣，在碩士第一學(xué)年，學(xué)生會接受有關(guān)研究方法的訓(xùn)練，了解可選擇的研究途徑，而在畢業(yè)學(xué)年，他們會根據(jù)個人感興趣的研究方向選擇相近研究領(lǐng)域的教學(xué)導(dǎo)師，開展論文寫作。論文寫作的核心目的是培養(yǎng)學(xué)生時間管理和獨立工作的能力，導(dǎo)師會提供階段性的引導(dǎo)和啟發(fā)，幫助其成長。根據(jù)學(xué)生興趣的差異，論文寫作可大致分為3個方向：

1）案例調(diào)查——實驗設(shè)計、初步分析和報告；或者基于某種理論的創(chuàng)意性項目，輔以文檔記錄和結(jié)構(gòu)化反思。

2）系統(tǒng)性綜述——對選定領(lǐng)域的研究、實踐或政策進(jìn)行批判性研究，并特別關(guān)注新興主題；或?qū)嶋H案例項目進(jìn)行選擇、圖解和分析，并進(jìn)行批判性評估。研究分析應(yīng)指出當(dāng)前的研究空白并通過對實踐經(jīng)驗的解讀和研究以啟發(fā)新的前沿實踐。

3）基于設(shè)計的考察——例如，對專項項目提案進(jìn)行展望與反思，并采用方向2）所述的綜述分析方法對專項項目中的某個主題進(jìn)行深化研究。

6 討論

風(fēng)景園林教育及畢業(yè)學(xué)年課程設(shè)計的總體目標(biāo)是讓學(xué)生成為具有競爭力、自信、獨立和富有創(chuàng)造性的思辨者，從而為其進(jìn)入風(fēng)景園林實踐行業(yè)做好充分準(zhǔn)備，并營造更美好的人居環(huán)境。

如Steinitz[6]所言，作為風(fēng)景園林師，當(dāng)定義了我們的工作范圍時，就定義了我們的未來。為此，他列舉了一系列開展過大規(guī)模風(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃實踐的行業(yè)翹楚，例如，沃倫·曼寧（Warren Manning）在1923年完成了覆蓋美國48個州的綠道規(guī)劃。相關(guān)原則在今天依舊適用：在英國，部分風(fēng)景園林企業(yè)對設(shè)計方向的人才需求已有所飽和，而行業(yè)中風(fēng)景園林規(guī)劃師的數(shù)量仍存在大量缺口；現(xiàn)行的綠色基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施改造等新舉措也亟須具有風(fēng)景園林管理背景的人才開展保護(hù)、改善和農(nóng)村景觀管理工作。為了應(yīng)對行業(yè)不斷變化的需求，謝菲爾德大學(xué)風(fēng)景園林系致力于調(diào)整教學(xué)課程體系，為學(xué)生提供在風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理相關(guān)方向均衡發(fā)展的機(jī)會，從而在空間和時間層面拓寬其視野并擴(kuò)大項目規(guī)模（圖5）。這種多樣化的發(fā)展符合 Gilliard和Thierstein[7]所述的對培養(yǎng)規(guī)劃能力所需的教育和支持。

5 拓寬風(fēng)景園林教育視角并擴(kuò)大時空維度Broadening the perspective of landscape architecture education and broadening the scale in terms of space and time

在謝菲爾德大學(xué)的風(fēng)景園林系碩士課程中，第一學(xué)年采用結(jié)構(gòu)化的課程設(shè)置，學(xué)生必須完成指定的課程，而針對畢業(yè)學(xué)年的教學(xué)方法則發(fā)生了根本性的改變，要求學(xué)生自主選擇專業(yè)方向并提前做好規(guī)劃。在構(gòu)思專項項目并確定項目場地時，有些學(xué)生具備較強(qiáng)的反應(yīng)能力，而有些學(xué)生的應(yīng)變能力則相對較慢。因此，課程的內(nèi)在挑戰(zhàn)是使學(xué)生學(xué)會從被動的受教育模式轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹鲃犹剿鞯膶W(xué)習(xí)模式。他們需要擺脫由導(dǎo)師定義問題的傳統(tǒng)窠臼，開闊視野，自行發(fā)現(xiàn)問題，并尋找解決答案。

學(xué)習(xí)者中心教學(xué)法實施的先決條件是確定設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理等發(fā)展方向。筆者的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗表明，那些在第二學(xué)年伊始就積極參與、全面推進(jìn)、構(gòu)思項目概念的學(xué)生，往往比那些在個人發(fā)展方向上猶豫不決的學(xué)生有更好的開端，能夠更快地確定適合專項項目發(fā)展理念的場地。

學(xué)習(xí)者中心教學(xué)法為優(yōu)秀的學(xué)生提供了良好的發(fā)展平臺，而通常這批學(xué)生也較少需要教師指導(dǎo)就能較好地獨立推進(jìn)設(shè)計。學(xué)生在每節(jié)討論課前需做好充分準(zhǔn)備，報告工作進(jìn)度，從而獲得建設(shè)性的意見反饋。對于教育者而言，挑戰(zhàn)在于讓每個學(xué)生都步入正軌，尤其是讓起步稍晚的學(xué)生可以迎頭趕上。作為導(dǎo)師，需要結(jié)合學(xué)生個體情況，因地制宜地處理不同場地問題，這一點往往比在同一個場地開展項目要更難實現(xiàn)。

此外，盡管學(xué)生需要在設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理的某一方向或某組合方向進(jìn)行選擇，但導(dǎo)師團(tuán)隊通常不會追隨如防洪和海綿城市等熱點話題對專項項目提出相關(guān)主題的要求，學(xué)生可以根據(jù)所選場地靈活機(jī)動地設(shè)定主題。由于項目在內(nèi)容和地理屬性上存在廣泛差異，專項項目的教學(xué)不但強(qiáng)度高，而且具有挑戰(zhàn)性，教師時常需要應(yīng)對無法預(yù)見的問題；這種教學(xué)方法還需要兼顧復(fù)雜的行政管理事務(wù)，不僅要妥善安排好院系的學(xué)生和教學(xué)導(dǎo)師，還要根據(jù)校外從業(yè)者/導(dǎo)師和評估人員的時間和專業(yè)方向進(jìn)行調(diào)整。

例如，當(dāng)學(xué)生選擇風(fēng)景園林設(shè)計、規(guī)劃和管理等不同方向后，需在保證導(dǎo)師的工作量適宜且學(xué)生能獲得均衡的輔導(dǎo)時間的前提下進(jìn)行導(dǎo)師匹配。在畢業(yè)學(xué)年初始，學(xué)生需要選擇3位導(dǎo)師并依據(jù)個人意愿排序。根據(jù)筆者多年的教學(xué)實踐經(jīng)驗，學(xué)生通常能夠匹配到第一志愿的導(dǎo)師，但有時某個方向報名人數(shù)過多，部分學(xué)生只能被第二志愿錄取。在極端情況下，倘若學(xué)生都趨向于選擇某個方向，院系需要靈活分配資金，在短時間內(nèi)外聘有相關(guān)資歷和興趣的臨時導(dǎo)師來輔助教學(xué)。

將教研結(jié)合，貫徹研究型教學(xué)理念并非易事。讓學(xué)生自主選擇項目場地，可能很難將導(dǎo)師的研究興趣付諸專項項目的教學(xué)中，如果導(dǎo)師能夠積極推進(jìn)相關(guān)研究方向，或可更好地將學(xué)生項目、場地選址與導(dǎo)師研究興趣相匹配[8]，同時學(xué)生的課程項目也可為導(dǎo)師的研究課題提供新的見解與靈感。在理想情況下，學(xué)生項目成果甚至可以在行業(yè)頂級學(xué)術(shù)期刊上發(fā)表[9]。

7 結(jié)語

作為一門專業(yè)實踐型學(xué)科，風(fēng)景園林學(xué)科教育需要為學(xué)生提供高質(zhì)量的專業(yè)教育，然而，教學(xué)人員的考核卻通常以研究成果為指標(biāo)[10]，這似乎是所有專業(yè)實踐型學(xué)科的困境，但同時也需要認(rèn)識到，研究成果有助于促使學(xué)科緊隨行業(yè)發(fā)展趨勢自我革新。

總之，培養(yǎng)風(fēng)景園林行業(yè)的未來從業(yè)者，雖充滿困難與挑戰(zhàn)，但富有樂趣和吸引力。風(fēng)景園林教育需要靈活接受新思想、新方法以應(yīng)對新挑戰(zhàn)，為學(xué)生提供自主發(fā)展和成長的契機(jī)，進(jìn)而推動他們在行業(yè)的不同領(lǐng)域深入拓展自己的事業(yè)。

圖表來源：

圖1?Ho Shun Yuen；圖2?Siva Teja Venkata；圖3、5由?？ㄌ亍ぬm格拍攝或繪制；圖4?Fumika Yoshimoto、Emma Gray、Chuanran Nie；表1由?？ㄌ亍ぬm格繪制。

（編輯/劉玉霞）

Student-Centered Learning in Landscape Architecture: The Special Project in the Final Year of the Master’s Programme at the University of Sheffield

Authors: (DEU) Eckart Lange, (NED) Jan Woudstra Translator: LU Xi

0 Introduction

Landscape Architecture and Environmental Design disciplines in general change the physical world we live in; ranging from small site scale projects to large landscapes or regional scales.At university level Landscape Architecture as a professional discipline covers teaching, research and in addition needs to satisfy requirements stated by professional bodies. Similar to Architecture,in the current context this can be seen as an anomaly in universities that are typically researchoriented[1]. On the other hand, some 200 years ago Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767 – 1835) coined the term of ‘The Unity of Research and Teaching’which expressed his ideal of the coexistence of research and teaching. Today this is a model for most universities all over the world. Central to this is the idea of research-oriented teaching and the transfer of knowledge from the spirit of research.This way of thinking is central to educating landscape architects at the University of Sheffield.At the same time the broader education model aims to educate graduates that are knowledgeable in the subject area, competent in applying the knowledge and skills, skilled and ethical researchers,entrepreneurial problem solvers, able to see the big picture, flexible team workers, independent learners, accomplished communicators and critical,analytical and creative thinkers that are highly employable and ready for professional practice.In order to support the students to develop these attributes the focus in the final year of the Master’s Programme is on a student-centered approach in education[2]which puts students at the centre of the learning process aiming to develop learner autonomy and independence. This paper presents the current approach and takes a critical perspective in terms of what is being achieved.

1 Landscape Architecture

Since the term landscape architecture was first used in the early nineteenth century, then defined as the design of buildings in landscape,it has become the name for a profession. This process started with its adoption by Frederick Law Olmsted (1822 – 1903) in the USA for his work that involved the creation not only of parks and gardens, but soon also city planning and the creation of parkways. It has since broadened with further specialisations, additional to landscape design, in the UK further recognizing landscape science and landscape management[3]. Also,landscape planning has been recognized by the Landscape Institute (LI), the professional body in the UK, as an important branch of the field.The LI accredits courses enabling students certain exemptions for professional membership which they need if they want to practice. The broad remit of the profession is often not envisaged by new students and is something they tend to discover during their education. It requires them to gather not only a wide range of transferrable skills, but also specific knowledge on professional practice.While on completion there is always scope, and work, for a large number of general practitioners,there is also room for those desiring to specialize within particular areas. In order to be relevant education must cater for both scenarios.

2 Landscape Architecture at the University of Sheffield

Since its establishment in 1969, the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of Sheffield has made a significant contribution in catering for the changing needs in landscape education, commencing with a distinctive approach in teaching with project-based modules,then referred to as the ‘Sheffield Method’. As a new department, resorting within a small Faculty of Architectural Studies, it was part of an expansion that also included a new Department of Town and Regional Planning alongside a much older School of Architecture. The organisational arrangement enabled much flexibility and collaboration, but as separate departments they were also able to set their own directions[4].

The Department of Landscape Architecture was initially funded by a private organisation linked to Granada Television, a commercial broadcasting organisation in the North of England. They saw landscape architecture as one of the main professions able to reclaim large areas of post-industrial wasteland and create a more attractive physical environment.They therefore looked at someone with experience in large-scale reclamation to lead the department and develop a new curriculum. Arnold Weddle(1924 – 1997), an architect and town planner by training, but with an interest in landscape design and training, was appointed as the first chair. Weddle had taught landscape design at the Department of Town and Regional Planning of the University of Liverpool since 1956, while also practicing as a town planner and landscape consultant. He was also active in the professional body (then called the Institute of Landscape Architects). In 1974 he founded the highest-ranked journal in the field,Landscape and Urban Planning,for which he was editor-in-chief until 1990.

Weddle had experience in large-scale land reclamation and was very conscious of the need to understand the nature of pollution and of ecology to accomplish this successfully. He also drew in the staff members of the department to assist with his various projects including not just land reclamation,but also power stations, new towns and coastal problems. The way of working and focus was similar to which he had been accustomed while at Liverpool. This was the earliest Department of Town and Regional Planning in the UK founded as the Department of Civic Design in 1908 and it had an international student cohort. By the 1960s teaching there was project-based, noted as research projects and it involved systematic field surveys,evaluation and large-scale planning problems,primarily as group work. Students were given the choice as whether to concentrate their projects on urban or rural areas.

Weddle adapted this manner of teaching for the new two-year Master’s Course in Sheffield,which sought candidates with a wide range of backgrounds (architecture, civil engineering,geography, town planning, agriculture, botany,forestry, horticulture), emphasising the perception of landscape architecture as an interdisciplinary field. The course comprised four fields of study,aiming to provide students with an overall background understanding of geological and ecological aspects of landscape; of land use; and landscape design and construction. The course culminated in what was then called Special Studies,the individual project work, and a precursor of what today is called the Special Project. Weddle presented this innovative curriculum at the conference of the International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA) in Montreal after which he expressed the confidence that the‘Sheffield Method’ of education would soon be emerging elsewhere in the world[5].

A few years later a number of undergraduate courses were created as well, and with university education continuing to promote the link between research and education, the Department has grown from strength to strength and today is the largest and only independent Department of Landscape Architecture in the UK. With recent changes in university education the second year of the MA course is joined by the fifth year of the undergraduate course, now named Master in Landscape Architecture. This emphasises the interdisciplinarity by encouraging mixing and dialogue within the two cohorts, and is beneficial in group work as well as the Special Project, which has continually been adjusted and modified to enable the latest pedagogical developments to be addressed.

3 The Final Year in Landscape Architecture at the University of Sheffield

The final year is characterised by a studentcentered approach to learning. The Special Project in the final year offers the students to select options and to specialise in landscape design, landscape planning and/or landscape management. Unlike previously, the students are now asked to select the route they would like to take at the beginning of the final year. This includes identifying specific modules, and also the specialisation in the final year studio which allows a particular focus on one area or a “double” specialist route in design,planning and/or management combining two of these areas of landscape architecture. Based on the choice of the students, the overall student numbers and which modules they have selected each specialisation route or strand is given a certain number of tutor pairs for which the students can indicate their preferences.

In Semester one of the final year, students need to select one module each of either Urban Landscape Planning / Art and Design Practice /Managing the Landscape and Rural Landscape Planning / Urban Design Project / Maintaining Green Infrastructure (Tab. 1).

Also, in Semester one, running in parallel to the two modules selected by the students, they are required to develop a project brief (Special Project:Research and Development Study) based on a site they have selected, and which may be anywhere on this planet. The site needs to exhibit problems that can be solved by landscape architects. This is an independent module that is directly linked to the Special Project and provides the basis for the successful completion of the Special Project. The project brief describes and defines the site/district and proposed development or regeneration, its context and issues; establishes a clear design/planning/management brief, rationale and approach for the Special Project (Fig. 1). The brief has to be underpinned by well-documented research addressing underlying science, policy and theory, where appropriate, and a critique of precedent studies of relevant real-life projects.Overall, this module aims to ensure that students produce a viable strategic vision as a starting point for their Special Project that is clearly responsive to the unique characteristics of the site and its context. The project brief is mainly produced by independent study with guidance and feedback on a draft version by a pair of studio tutors.

4 The Final Year Studio: The Special Project

At the heart of the education in Landscape Architecture is the design studio. Unlike in the science disciplines such as physics or chemistry that rely to a large degree on universally similar contents and formats, the design studio varies considerably in terms of approaches of how it is taught. Quite commonly in the discipline of Landscape Architecture around the world, there is a kind of one size fits all approach, in which all students work on one site and produce competing solutions for a problem that has been defined by the studio leader. In this paper we present an approach in teaching where each student works on a different site and a project idea that is driven by the student’s rationale and motivation. When the students make their choice of the Special Project strand (i.e. Design, Planning, Management) they are associated with a tutor pair and are grouped with other students in the same strand who made the same selection. Depending on the size of the year group and variances in the choices made by the students, typically a tutor pair supervises around 5-10 students. Tutorials are held on a weekly basis(Fig. 2) and there are additional surgery sessions offered with external tutors to provide additional input and generate responsive approaches.

The Special Project aims to test the readiness of the students to enter the landscape profession, completing an independent project to a professional standard from the project brief to final presentation. It runs across two semesters.In semester one the project brief is written and in semester two the actual Special Project is done in two stages of 2 × 6 weeks with an interim review,after week 6, carrying 25% of the weight, and the final project review after week 12, carrying 75%of the weight. At the interim review there are two tutors providing feedback, one of which is a tutor of the tutor pair supervising the student and the other is a tutor from another pair. At the final review (Fig. 3) there is again one of the tutors of the tutor pair supervising the student present and also another tutor from another pair, as well as an external tutor from practice.

Depending on the selected route in the Special Project the individual projects range considerably in scale, scope and thematic focus. While designfocused projects (Fig. 4-1) typically operate on a scale from 1∶50 to 1∶500 and require inventive and responsive approaches to landscape design in order to create sustainable environments, based on an understanding of physical form, processes and materials of landscape design include vegetation, water, landform and structures, and its potential to influence social, ecological, and cultural dimensions, other project routes such as the Design-Management strand (Fig. 4-2) break down the artificial distinction between design as a creative process and management as the practical and implementation phase of design.Such projects operate on similar scales, but will require a management plan as well in which the implementation of the design in the shortmedium term through management is addressed,including ‘invisible’ aspects of site management and development, for example the development of educational programs, ranger services, marketing to maintain future visitor numbers and a viable income stream and training of staff. On other end of the scale at e.g. 1∶10,000 or 1∶25,000,projects involve strategic planning and master planning components (Fig. 4-3) that might address themes such as adaptation to climate change, issues of sustainable development,including the establishment of multi-functional green infrastructure, urban regeneration and new development such as large housing schemes up to a master plan level at around 1∶1,000.

5 Thesis

The thesis, an additional module that is commenced once the Special Project is finished,is completed over the Summer months. The thesis provides an opportunity to engage in independent study and research. Students will have had an introduction to research methods during their first year of study, during which they are made aware of the wide range of approaches open to them. In the second year they select and work with an academic advisor to produce a substantial piece of research in their chosen area. Whilst they will receive some assistance through regular tutorials, a major purpose is to demonstrate their ability to work independently, and to manage their time in such a way that they produce a high-quality submission,to a deadline, with limited direction. Depending on the interests of the students there are several possible options, and theses will typically fall into three categories.

1) Enquiry by Project – experimental design,primary analysis and reporting; or a theoretically contextualised creative project, plus documentation and structured reflection.

2) Enquiry by Systematic Review – a critical review of research and practice/policy in a selected area, paying particular attention to emergent themes; or selection, illustration and interpretation of works, comprising a critical assessment of precedent. It should identify knowledge gaps and/or ways in which leading-edge practice could be informed by new research and theorised understanding of precedent.

3) Enquiry by Design – e.g. a continuation and self-critique of the student’s own Special Project proposals, plus a review-based method, as above,relating to a theme in their Special Project.

6 Discussion

The overarching aim of landscape architecture education and the final year is to prepare students to become competent, confident, independent and creative thinkers and able to enter the profession as a landscape architect, in essence being able to shape a better world.

As Steinitz[6]pointed out, as landscape architects we define our future when we define the scope of our work. He is referring to a number of well-known landscape architects who were successfully working on large-scale landscape projects, including e.g. Warren Manning who produced a plan for the whole of the United States in 1923. This factor is also of importance today:Not all employers are looking for designers and there are particular shortages of landscape planners in the UK and a growing need for landscape managers to support new initiatives around greenspace and green infrastructure as well as the conservation, enhancement and management of rural landscapes. We are aware of these changing needs of the profession and are offering opportunities to specialise in landscape design,landscape planning and/or landscape management,thus broadening the perspective as well as the scale in terms of space and time (Fig. 5). In essence, such a diversification is comparable to education and support of competencies in planning as described in Gilliard ＆ Thierstein[7].

The first year of the Master’s program is clearly structured and students follow most modules without opportunities for choice, but following this general grounding the approach changes radically in the final year requiring the students to make decisions about their specialisation and to plan ahead. In particular, students need to think about their Special Project and the project site. As always, there are students who are more responsive and those who are less so. The challenge for some students is that they might have difficulties to change from a more passive and receiving mode to an active mode in which they have to define and drive a project themselves, rather than being driven by a module tutor. In other words this requires them to define the problem themselves, instead of being given a problem or issue, and it requires developing a vision themselves, instead of being given a task by a tutor.

As the final year is very much studentcentered there is a prerequisite to make important decisions regarding the particular specialisation in design, planning and/or management early on.Those students who actively engage, commit to and develop an intellectually thorough project idea early on, tend to get a much better start than those who are unsure about the route they would like to take. This is exemplified by the ability to identify a suitable site that fits a particular project idea and vision.

Overall, the student-centered approach provides an opportunity for strong students to excel. Typically, these are the students that need the least guidance. As with all tutorials and feedback sessions it is essential that students come prepared,otherwise they lack the opportunity to present their work in progress and to receive constructive feedback. The challenge from an educator’s perspective is to keep everyone on track and to make sure that those with a slow start are able to catch up. From a tutor’s perspective it is easier to supervise a group of students that all work on the same site, rather than having to engage with specific problems of a range of different sites.

Also, although students pursue a design,planning or management route, or combinations thereof, normally there is no particular thematic focus in a tutor group, e.g. on current topics such as flooding, or sustainable drainage. Students define the thematic focus themselves as appropriate to the particularities of the selected site. As such, the Special Project is characterised not only through intensive and sometimes challenging teaching which requires input to often unforeseen questions but also by the fact that projects are widely diverse in contents and are geographically widely distributed. Adding to complexity is the fact that this approach requires intensive administration, to coordinate not just all students and all academics in the department, but also external practitioners/tutors, and assessors.

As an example, there is a need to match the student choices regarding landscape design,landscape planning and/or landscape management with an appropriate number of tutor pairs to keep the supervisory load balanced and to offer equal levels of supervision. At the beginning of the final year, students are presented with a choice of tutor pairs for which they need to indicate their first,second and third choice. Generally, over many years experience in teaching the final year, the numbers of students and their selection of tutor pairs generally can be arranged to match. There are of course cases where some pairs are oversubscribed and students then cannot be given their first choice.In the worst case, students are over subscribing towards a particular specialisation and that means that there needs to be a flexibility and financial buffers to accommodate hiring temporary staff on relatively short notice, requiring a pool of able and interested external practitioners to provide input in teaching.

The integration of teaching and research and the notion of research-led teaching is always a challenge. As students select their own project sites, the Special Project opportunities to closely align research interests of academics and input in teaching might be limited. If tutors actively promote their research interests, in some cases student projects, site locations and research interests of academic staff can be matched[8]. On the other hand, the theses are often associated with ongoing research and can contribute to new insights. In an ideal case scenario they can even lead to publication output in highly respected journals[9].

7 Conclusions

As a discipline being taught at university, from an educational perspective landscape architecture needs to deliver a high-quality professional education while at the same time the teaching staff are normally also measured in terms of research performance[10]. This is a dilemma of all professional disciplines, but the ability to regenerate the discipline continuously through injecting research input is essential in order to remain relevant and to future-proof the profession.

Overall, educating future leaders of the profession can be challenging and demanding while at the same time being joyful, stimulating,fascinating, etc. Educational programs in landscape architecture need to be flexible in taking up new ideas, new approaches, tackle new challenges and need to give students the opportunity to develop,to thrive and to specialise in different domains in the field of landscape architecture.

Sources of Figures and Table:

Fig. 1?Ho Shun Yuen; Fig. 2?Siva Teja Venkata; Fig. 3, 5?Eckart Lange; Fig. 4?Fumika Yoshimoto, Emma Gray,Chuanran Nie. Tab. 1?Eckart Lange.

(Editor / LIU Yuxia)