From religious manual to herbal pharmacopoeia:a textual study of the formation and transformation of Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica

Bi-Sheng Peng,Min Lu

1Institute of Taoism and Religious Culture,Sichuan University,Chengdu 610065,China; 2Center For Studies of Ethnic Minorities in Northwest China,Lanzhou University,Lanzhou 730020,China.

Abstract

The earliest Ben Cao Jing (Classics of Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.) appeared during the reign of the Han Dynasty(202 B.C.E.-220 C.E.);their origins are traceable to the religious group called Fang Xian Dao.In addition to their use as a medical reference,the Ben Cao Jing works were also used for religious purposes.Tao Hongjing(456 C.E.-536 C.E.),a famous doctor and Daoist(one member of the Chinese local religion,Daoism)of the Liang Dynasty (502 C.E.-557 C.E.),compiled the Ben Cao Jing Ji Zhu (Variorum of Classics of Materia Medica; 456 C.E.-536 C.E.)based on the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing(Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica;25 C.E.-220 C.E.).During the compilation of this book,Tao made a radical medical revision to the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing,by reducing its religious contents while complementing its medical contents.After such revisions,the ancient Ben Cao Jing was transformed from a religious manual into an herbal pharmacopoeia.

Keywords: Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica, Ben Cao Jing Ji Zhu, Variorum of Classics of Materia Medica,Tao Hongjing

Background

TheShen Nong Ben Cao Jing(Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.) is perceived as one of the most important books in traditional Chinese medicine.It is believed to have been written by the legendary sage sovereign Shennong after he had experimented with hundreds of herbs.This book is considered to represent the beginning of pharmacology in ancient China; therefore,it was given the name of“precursor of materia medica”.This book also had significant influence on the pharmacology of ancient Japan and ancient Korea,for example,Silla (ancient Korea)founded its first medical school in 693 C.E.,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingwas chosen as one of the fundamental teaching materials.Similarly,the Ji Yi Ling (Medical Statutes; 701 C.E.) of ancient Japan declared that a student of medicine must learn Ben Cao(i.e.,materia medica) according to the research of Natsui Takato,based onBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu(Variorum of Classics of Materia Medica; 456 C.E.-536 C.E.) [1],which is a variorum edition of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.In the following years,all important medical writings such as theYi Fang Lei Ju(Categorized Collection of Medical Formulas; 1443 C.E.),Dong Yi Bao Jian(East Medical Treasures;1611 C.E.) of ancient Korea,and theYi Xin Fang(Ishinpo; 984 C.E.) of ancient Japan have been influenced significantly by theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.

Beyond the book associated with this legendary sage king,there are a series of books on herbology calledBen Cao Jing(Classics of Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.) in the early period of China.TheBen Cao Jingthat bears the name of Shennong is only one of the texts within the series.These early materia medica books were not pure works of pharmacology:they contained a lot of religious elements such as shamanism and alchemy,including the use of spells,rites,and elixirs to treat illnesses.Their origin seems to be traceable to a religious group called Fang Xian Dao had been inactive for hundreds of years from the Warring States period (475 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.) to the Han Dynasty period (25 C.E.-220 C.E.),which was a specialized religious group focusing on seeking and refining the elixirs.Some scholars believed that the Fang Xian Dao was the predecessor to the most important local religion known as Daoism.This subject has been discussed extensively in articles by scholars such as Shang Zhijun and Tohru Oghata [2,3].

TheBen Cao Jingwas passed down from one generation to the next since their appearance up until Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) in the Liang Dynasty period(502 C.E.-557 C.E.),who engaged in a pervasive reconsideration of the importance of the book.Tao was a famous doctor of his time and was a Daoist.Based on the four-volume version of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingand other medical books,Tao completed the compilation of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.Tao’s work was valued as the best and most comprehensive materia medica book at that time.In the Tang Dynasty (581 C.E.-907 C.E.),a new edition of the materia medica calledXin Xiu Ben Cao(Newly Compiled Materia Medica; 659 C.E.),which was the first official materia medica in the history of China,was compiled using the fundamentals of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuunder the supervision of the imperial court.In subsequent periods of history,editions of materia medica followed the editing rules ofXin Xiu Ben Cao,which required editors to take the previous edition of materia medica as the authoritative basis upon which to work and to retain a complete copy of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.In this way,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,which was preserved in Tao Hongjing’sBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,has become the foundation of all the extant materia medica books,and,as such,has come to be regarded as the“precursor of materia medica”.

In the process of its being passed down,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingunderwent some medical revisions,such that its religious content (e.g.,elements of shamanism,alchemy,and worship of the deities) were reduced,and medical theories and applications were continuously improved.This process can be seen by examining the textual differences between the remains of the ancientBen Cao Jingand the extantShen Nong Ben Cao Jing; this topic will be discussed more fully in the present article.After this extensive medical revision,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jinghas,in effect,been transformed into its current form as an herbal pharmacopoeia.The purpose of this paper is to review the formation and transformation process of the earliest Ben Cao book,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingthat appeared during the rule of the Han Dynasty (25 C.E.-220 C.E.),with the aim of exploring the relationship between traditional Chinese medicine and the local religion Fang Xian Dao in ancient China.

Formation and passing down of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing

It is impossible to discover,with certainty,the exact formation process of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingor to ascertain its true origins because of the insufficiency of documentary evidence.Modern scholars can only reach consensus on a rough hypothesis based on the texts recorded in the book itself and by reference to other ancient historical records.Although controversy still exists,there is a general consensus that this book was probably written in the Han Dynasty period (25 C.E.-220 C.E.).There are several strong evidentiary reasons for this judgment.

(1)There was no record ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jingin the historical catalogYi Wen Zhi(Literature and Art Records; 105 C.E.) or from theHan Shu(History ofthe Han Dynasty; 105 C.E.),which recorded all the important books known to have been in existence before the rule of the Han Dynasty period (25 C.E.-220 C.E.).Several medical or religious books were recorded inYi Wen Zhi,of which some were named as “Shen Nong”.For example,there are medical books namedShen Nong Huang Di Shi Jin(Shennong & Huangdi’s Food Taboos; 105 C.E.) andSheng Nong Za Zhi Ji Dao(Shennong’s Fitness Skills;105 C.E.),but there is no record of theSheng Nong Ben Cao JinginYi Wen Zhi,which means when theYi Wen Zhiwas compiled by Ban Gu (32 C.E.-92 C.E.),it is likely that theShen Nong Ben Cao Jinghad not yet been finalized or might only have been circulated among a small group in secret.

(2)A large number of place names were recorded inSheng Nong Ben Cao Jingto locate the habitat of herbs in which the names of Yu Zhang,Chang Shan,and Zhu Ya were included,but in fact,the names of these places only appeared in the Han Dynasty(25 C.E.-220 C.E.),which indicates that it is possible that theSheng Nong Ben Cao Jingwas written before the rule of the Han Dynasty period(25 C.E.-220 C.E.)[4].

(3) The term “Ben Cao” first appeared during the time of the Han Dynasty (25 C.E.-220 C.E.);it can be found in the three chapters ofHan Shu,namelyLou Hu Zhuan(Biography of Louhu;105 C.E.),Jiao Si Zhi(Records of Sacrifice; 105 C.E.),andPing Di Li(Chronological Record of Ping Di; 105 C.E.).In these three records,“Ben Cao” was a reference to herbology or to the people who were proficient in herbology;these people were regarded as alchemists or shamans and were valued by the emperors during the rule of the Han Dynasty (25 C.E.-220 C.E.) who had the desire and the will to pursue their quest for immortality through this route [5].TheShen Nong Ben Cao Jing isone version of the ancientBen Cao Jing.There is evidence that at the time of their first appearance there was no single specific name by which they were called;taken together,there was onlyBen Cao Jing,which was used as a unified name or thematic reference for them.Many ancient books in the Han Dynasty (25 C.E.-220 C.E.),such as theChu Ci Zhang Ju(Chapters and Sentences of Chu’s Poems; 114 C.E.)and theFan Si Er Ya Zhuan(Fan’s Note of Erya; 180 C.E.-225 C.E.),have quoted fromSheng Nong Ben Cao Jing[6],which came to be known as the“Classics of Materia Medica”.In addition,there are about 250 citations ofShen Nong Ben Cao JinginTai Ping Yu Lan(Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia;983 C.E.),which was an important source book compiled during the Song Dynasty (960 C.E.-1279 C.E.),including more than 220 drug entries under the titles ofBen Cao Jing,17 drug entries under the titles ofBen Cao,and only 9,6,and 3 drug entries under the titles ofShen Nong Ben Cao(Shennong’s Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.),Shen Nong Jing(Classic of Shennong; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.),andShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,respectively[7].

Later,these medicine books,which were called theBen Cao Jing,were distinguished from each other by means of the addition of different names as prefixes.For example,we may refer to a work by Wu Pu (149 C.E.-250 C.E.),a famous doctor in the Three Kingdoms period (220 C.E.-280 C.E.),who compiled the bookWu Shi Ben Cao Jing(Wu’s Classic of Materia Medica; 149 C.E.-250 C.E.).In this book,nine versions of theBen Cao Jingwere collected:Shen Nong,Huang Di,Qi Bo,Lei Gong,Tong Jun,Bian Que,Li Shi,Yi Jing,and Yi He;these are all names of ancient doctors or kings,Shen Nong being just one of them.Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) also mentioned that there were different versions ofBen Cao Jingthat specified different numbers of drugs(some of them recorded 595 kinds of drugs,some dealt with 431 kinds,and some listed 319 kinds).The version chosen by Tao was one which contained 365 drugs,corresponding to the number of days in a year[8].All these findings show that theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingrecorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuby Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) was only one version from many of the ancientBen Cao Jing.

Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) distinguished different source of texts with different colors in the process of compiling theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.That is to say,the original texts ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jingwere written with red characters [8],and the texts that came fromMing Yi Bie Lu(Notes of Famous Doctors;492 C.E.-500C.E.),complementingShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,with black characters.This method of distinguishing between and among the various texts was inherited by theXin Xiu Ben Caocompiled during the Tang Dynasty (581 C.E.-907 C.E.).The remnant of theXin Xiu Ben Caonumbered as p.3714,which is kept at the Library of France in Paris,still retains this compilation style that distinguished the various texts by means of different colors.It should be noted here that some scholars question whether even the red characters had been revised by Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) during his compilation of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu[2].

In theZhen Lei Ben Cao(Zhenlei Materia Medica;1097 C.E.-1100 C.E.),which was compiled in the Song Dynasty (960 C.E.- 1279 C.E.),a different method for distinguishing the different texts was used.The original texts ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jingwere printed with white characters on a black background[9],and the texts that came fromMing Yi Bie Luwere printed with large black characters while other texts were printed with small black characters.Because theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuwas well preserved and taken as the basis for the subsequent materia medica books,it can be claimed that there is actually a single common source of the extantShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,which is theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingrecorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,compiled by Tao Hongjing(456 C.E.-536 C.E.).

Textual differences between ancient Ben Cao Jing and the extant Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing

There are many lost texts ofBen Cao Jingpreserved in other ancient historical books of China.Many of them are quite different from the texts found in the present-day version ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.These differences reveal modifications that were made to the text as it was being passed down through the ages.These differences include the differences in the theory of drug classification,which can be seen from the lost texts recorded in theBo Wu Zhi(Natural History; 232 C.E.-300 C.E.),written by Zhang Hua (232 C.E.-300 C.E.) at the time of the Xijin Dynasty (265 C.E.-316 C.E.).andBao Pu Zi Nei Pian(Secret Classic of Ge Hong; 306 C.E.-317 C.E.),a Daoist classic written by the famous Daoist Ge Hong(284 C.E.-364 C.E.)at the time of the DongJin Dynasty (326 C.E.-420 C.E.).There are also differences in the content of drug entries,which can be seen from the medicine entries of theBen Cao Jingquoted inTai Ping Yu Lan.In addition,there are lost texts that were preserved only in other ancient books that cannot be found in the extantShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.There are several examples of these textual differences; only a number of them will be selected for consideration within the scope of this article.

Regarding the differences in theory pertaining to the classification of drugs,it is best to compare the passages taken fromBo Wu ZhiandBao Pu Zhi Nei Pian,which are quite different from the corresponding texts in Tao Hongjing’sBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.

On comparing the three paragraphs in Table1,the following differences regarding the classification of the three grades of drugs are clear.In theBo Wu Zhiof Zhang Hua,the quoted texts mainly talked about the classification of three grades of drugs,which were relatively simple.The texts quoted by theBao Pu Zi Nei Pianof Ge Hong (284 C.E.-364 C.E.) mostly focused on the description of the different effects of the three grades of drugs,in which many Daoist terms are used,it was particularly different from the other texts.The texts recorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuof Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) focused on the differentiation of drugs for use in the treatment of different diseases,including a statement of medical theories such as the specific number of the three grades of drugs,the combinations of drugs,the toxicity of drugs,and so on.

Regarding the differences pertaining to the drug entries,comparisons may be made between the drug entries quoted byTai Ping Yu Lanand the drug entries recorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.There are more than 200 drug entries with the names specified inBen CaoorBen Cao Jingthat have been quoted in theTai Ping Yu Lan.Most of these entries are the same or similar to those recorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,but there are also a few entries that are quite different from those found in Tao’s version.For example,these three drugs specified below in Table2 show a great difference between them.

It can be seen that there are some significant differences between the texts recorded inBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuand those quoted inTai Ping Yu Lan.The medical content,including such aspects as flavor,property,indication,and efficacy were described in detail inBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuwhile only the shapes and habitats were recorded in the lost articles ofBen Cao Jing.Furthermore,it can be seen there are two texts that were quoted fromShen Nong Ben Caoand

Ben Cao Jingsimultaneously inTai Ping Yu Lanfor the He Huan (Albizia julibrissin Durazz),the text quoted fromBen Cao Jingis almost the same as the text recorded in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,while the text quoted from theShen Nong Ben Caois quite different.This is a clear point of evidence showing that there were substantive differences in the textual wording of the different versions of the ancientBen Cao Jing.

In addition to the differences in the theory of medicine and drug entries,there are also some texts about the worship of the gods or the theory of immortality that can only be found in the ancientBen Cao Jingwhich are not in the present-day version ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.For example,inTai Ping Yu Lan,there are the following quotations from the book ofBen Cao Jing.The book ofShen Nong Ben Cao Jingsays,Shennong bowed to the Tai Yizhi,who is a very important god in Daoism,again and asked:“I heard that in ancient times,the people could live longer than a hundred years without illness and pain;what reasons account for their longevity?” The deity Tai Yizhi said,“There are nine ways to reach longevity,and the middle way (taking medication) is the best.”So Shennong followed the guidance of deity Tai Yizhi by testing herbs in order to save the people from having to suffer so greatly [12].This paragraph is the only record found among theBen Cao Jingthat mentioned the formation process of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingand the legendary story of Shennong’s testing of herbs,which connected this book to the worship of the deity Tai Yizhi.

From a careful comparison between the texts of theSheng Nong Ben Cao Jingpreserved in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuand theBen Cao Jingpreserved in other ancient books,it can be seen that there are wide differences between them.The most obvious of these is that there were more medical contents in theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,while in the ancient version of theBen Cao Jing,there are a lot of religious terms,which have disappeared and are not to be found in extant versions.

Medical transformation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing

It is now clear that theShen Nong Ben Cao Jinghad undergone a series of medical modifications in the process of its being passed down from generation to generation,which is the cause for the differences between the ancientBen Cao Jingtexts and the extant texts of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.Before Tao Hongjing’s compilation of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jinghad undergone some medical modifications,which can be seen in research conducted by Mr.Ma Jixing [6].After that,when Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) compiled theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingexperienced another radical medical revision.

In the preface of theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) described the compilation process in detail:“My compilation will be based on theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,which recorded 365 kinds of drugs,and I will use theMing Yi Bie Luas supplemental materials,which also recorded 365 kinds of drugs,then refer to other medical books.I will choose all the materials,both fine and rough,I will distinguish the drugs by category,I will make note of their picking season and habitat,and I will record their application in religious use[8].”

Table1 Comparison of drug theories in the ancient Ben Cao Jing (Classics of Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.)and the extant Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing(Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica;25 C.E.-220 C.E.)

Table2 Comparison of drug entries in the ancient Ben Cao Jing (Classics of Materia Medica; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.)and the extant Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing(Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica;25 C.E.-220 C.E.)

According to this statement,the systematic revision process ofBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuby Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) was accomplished in two steps.First was the selection of the appropriate version of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing.As stated above,there were a series ofBen Cao Jingin the early days.What Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) used is theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,which recorded 365 kinds of drugs.He believed this version of theBen Cao Jingwas left by Shennong himself.The second step was the revision of medical information after referring to other medical books.For example,according to his statement,one guiding principle of his compilation was“to synthesize all kinds of medical classics,supplement the deficiencies,and delete the redundant content of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing”[8].

According to Tao Hongjing’s statement of the compilation process and the textual difference between existingShen Nong Ben Cao Jingand the lost articles of the ancientBen Cao Jing,it can be inferred that Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.) has made at least the following medical modifications.

First,the inclusion or introduction of the principle of drug formulation.The following principle of drug formulation was described by Tao in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.The drugs of the upper,middle and lower grades are divided into four categories [8].However,according to theBao Pu Zi Nei Pianof Ge Hong (284 C.E.-364 C.E.) and theBo Wu Zhiof Zhang Hua,no one had ever previously mentioned this formulation.When Tao Hongjing(456 C.E.-536 C.E.)compiled theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,he claimed to have referred to the book ofYao Dui(Drug Formulation; 25 C.E.-220 C.E.),which specially discusses the principle of drug formulation.Therefore,it can be speculated that the formulation theory may be a unique portion of the content of the version of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingchosen by Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.),or it might possibly have been added by Tao Hongjing(456 C.E.-536 C.E.)from his study of other medical books.

Secondly,the ancient method for the classification of drugs was adjusted and improved.According to Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.),there was a great deal of confusion in the classification of drugs in the originalSheng Nong Ben Cao Jing:“Upper grade and lower-grade drugs were mixed,febrile drugs and cool nature drugs were also mixed,no distinction being made between the drugs made from animals and those derived from plants [8].” So,Tao made adjustments to the classification of drugs.First,adjusting the classification of the three grades of drugs according to their toxicity and efficacy.For example,realgar and orpiment were specified as belonging to the upper grade drugs in theBao Pu Zi Nei Pianof Ge Hong(284 C.E.-364 C.E.),but Tao adjusted the list and assigned them to the lower-grade of drugs due to their toxicity.Second,considering that the ancientShen Nong Ben Cao Jingonly provided a rough classification to upper,middle,and lower grades but did not distinguish the categories of these drugs; in theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu,drugs were classified into several categories such as “Grass”,“Wood”,“Stone”,“Mineral”,“Insect”,“Grain”,according to their natural sources.This is the first time that Chinese herbal medicines were classified according to their natural sources,which became a principle of classification followed in all the later materia medica books[13].

Thirdly,many medical contents such as the efficacy and major functions of a drug were added to theSheng Nong Ben Cao Jing.As we can see,most of the drug entries from theBen Cao Jingquoted in theTai Ping Yu Lanand other ancient books are relatively simple,some of them only included the shapes,picking season and habitat of the plants,while Tao’s version included more content pertaining to medical applications,including the flavor,property,indication,and efficacy of certain drugs.These technical differences in the texts make it clearly evident that Tao engaged in revision of the medical content of theShen Nong Ben Cao Jingwhen he was compiling theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhu.

Conclusion

Based this comparative study of the lost articles of the ancientBen Cao Jingand the extantShen Nong Ben Cao Jingcompiled by Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.),it is now clear that the formation and the revision process ofShennong’s Classic of Materia Medicamay be described as follows.

During the Han Dynasty period (25 C.E.-220 C.E.),there was a religious group of Fang Xian Daoists who specialized in the study of alchemy and herbology,and the earliestBen Cao Jingmay be traceable to their works.The purpose of these Fang Xian Daoists was to use these texts as a guide in their pursuit of the emperor’s quest for immortality and also for general medical purposes.The contents of these books are relatively simple,mainly describing the shape,habitat,picking methods,and efficacies of various drugs prescribed during those times for medicinal and religious use.Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.)compiled theBen Cao Jing Ji Zhuin the Liang Dynasty period (502 C.E.-557 C.E.).This article shows that during the compilation of this book,Tao made a radical revision of the ancientBen Cao Jing,by reducing the religious contents and augmenting the medical contents.This compilation,including the revisions made to theShen Nong Ben Cao Jing,was retained in the subsequent materia medica books as basic reference material.After this textual revision by Tao Hongjing (456 C.E.-536 C.E.),the ancientBen Cao Jingwas,in effect,transformed from a religious manual of herbology into an herbal pharmacopoeia,which is the form in which it appears today.