隋倩雯,張俊亞,魏源送,,*,陳梅雪,董紅敏,熊繼海
1. 中國科學(xué)院生態(tài)環(huán)境研究中心 環(huán)境模擬與污染控制國家重點(diǎn)聯(lián)合實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100085 2. 中國農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)院農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境與可持續(xù)發(fā)展研究所,北京 100081 3. 江西省科學(xué)院能源研究所,南昌 330096
畜禽養(yǎng)殖過程抗生素使用與耐藥病原菌及其抗性基因賦存的研究進(jìn)展
隋倩雯1,張俊亞1,魏源送1,3,*,陳梅雪1,董紅敏2,熊繼海3
1. 中國科學(xué)院生態(tài)環(huán)境研究中心 環(huán)境模擬與污染控制國家重點(diǎn)聯(lián)合實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100085 2. 中國農(nóng)業(yè)科學(xué)院農(nóng)業(yè)環(huán)境與可持續(xù)發(fā)展研究所,北京 100081 3. 江西省科學(xué)院能源研究所,南昌 330096
獸用抗生素在提高畜禽生產(chǎn)性能、防治疾病方面發(fā)揮著重要作用,目前全球超過一半以上抗生素用于畜禽養(yǎng)殖,畜禽養(yǎng)殖源耐藥病原菌、抗性基因及其傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)愈益得到人們的重視。我國是畜禽養(yǎng)殖和抗生素使用大國,但獸用抗生素使用、病原菌耐藥水平及其抗性基因類型等數(shù)據(jù)卻較為缺乏,不利于今后畜禽養(yǎng)殖源耐藥病原菌及其傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的控制。因此,本文通過文獻(xiàn)調(diào)研,對我國和主要發(fā)達(dá)國家的獸用抗生素使用情況、畜禽養(yǎng)殖源耐藥病原菌及其攜帶的抗性基因、基因移動元件以及向環(huán)境傳播的途徑進(jìn)行分析、總結(jié),以期為規(guī)范合理用藥、降低耐藥病原菌及其抗性基因傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn),建立從畜禽養(yǎng)殖場至公共環(huán)境全過程的抗性污染控制鏈條提供借鑒。
獸用抗生素;重金屬;耐藥病原菌;抗生素抗性基因;基因移動元件
Received 22 September 2015 accepted 21 October 2015
世界衛(wèi)生組織指出抗生素抗性是21世紀(jì)人類面臨最大的挑戰(zhàn),但有關(guān)畜禽養(yǎng)殖業(yè)抗生素抗性的數(shù)據(jù)非常缺乏,應(yīng)監(jiān)督和促進(jìn)畜禽養(yǎng)殖業(yè)的合理用藥,加強(qiáng)抗生素使用與抗性傳播的研究[1]。自1949年美國科學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)飼料中添加金霉素可使豬、雞增重,節(jié)約飼料以來[2],獸用抗生素使用已有60年歷史。獸用抗生素按照用途分為3類,分別為促生長類(animal growth promoters)、預(yù)防類(prophylactic use)和治療類(therapeutic use)[3],隨著畜禽業(yè)的集約化、規(guī)?;l(fā)展,為提高動物生產(chǎn)性能、防治疾病,獸用抗生素發(fā)揮著重要作用。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)全球獸用抗生素用量是人類用量的2倍[4]。全球平均牛、雞、豬在單位動物產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)過程中抗生素消耗量分別為45、148和172 mg·kg-1[5]。2010年獸用抗生素用量最大的國家依次為中國(23%)、美國(13%)、巴西(9%)、印度(3%)和德國(3%),中國高居全球獸用抗生素消耗最大國家[5]。
抗生素以飼料添加、口服、注射等方式在畜禽養(yǎng)殖業(yè)使用,其中飼料添加劑抗生素用量最大。除抗生素之外,重金屬如銅、鋅、砷等礦物元素也作為飼料添加劑大量使用[6]。Chantziaras等[7]的研究表明獸用抗生素(包括氯霉素類、磺胺類、鏈霉素、四環(huán)素、氨基青霉素類、慶大霉素、第三代頭孢菌素等)用量與畜禽養(yǎng)殖源分離的埃希氏大腸桿菌(Escherichia coli, E. coli )的耐藥水平具有正相關(guān)關(guān)系。由于獸用抗生素引起細(xì)菌耐藥性,歐盟國家已在1997年開始逐步禁止促生長類抗生素的使用,在隨后的5年中畜禽養(yǎng)殖源分離的耐藥菌尤其雞源分離的糞腸球菌(Enterococcus faecium )對安普霉素、維吉尼亞霉素、泰樂菌素、卑霉素的耐藥率大幅降低[8]。不同于人用抗生素的使用與耐藥性監(jiān)測,畜禽養(yǎng)殖過程的相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)非常缺乏。
畜禽養(yǎng)殖源賦存大量病原菌,如腸桿菌科細(xì)菌、腸球菌、葡萄球菌等[9]。在抗生素的選擇壓力和重金屬的協(xié)同選擇作用下[10-11],動物腸道、糞便、廢水存儲大量耐藥病原菌[12-13],其攜帶的抗性基因由移動基因元件介導(dǎo)具有水平轉(zhuǎn)移功能[14],存在較大的疫病傳播和公共健康風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[15]。Martínez等[16]將移動基因元件介導(dǎo)且宿主細(xì)菌為人類病原菌的抗性基因排序?yàn)橐患夛L(fēng)險(xiǎn),與其他類型抗性基因相比對人類健康威脅最大。
由于畜禽糞便、糞水的還田利用或排放,畜禽源耐藥病原菌從養(yǎng)殖場傳播至外界環(huán)境(土壤、河流)[17-18],存在抗性污染的傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn),尤其畜禽源耐藥菌對環(huán)境抗性水平提高的貢獻(xiàn)以及對公共健康安全的威脅,目前仍未有定論,缺乏系統(tǒng)性研究與評估[19]。此外,有研究表明人類腸道四環(huán)素抗性基因豐度最高,極有可能來自于獸用抗生素的使用以及抗性基因沿食物鏈的傳播[20]。有研究從蔬菜分離得到來自于動物糞便的耐藥病原菌及抗性基因[9, 21]。耐藥病原菌及其攜帶的抗性基因沿食物鏈傳播,可能是畜禽養(yǎng)殖抗性基因向人類傳播的途徑之一,然而該傳播機(jī)制尚不明確。
因此,本文通過文獻(xiàn)調(diào)研,總結(jié)歸納了我國及主要發(fā)達(dá)國家獸用抗生素以及重金屬使用情況,畜禽養(yǎng)殖源分離的病原菌的耐藥水平及其攜帶的抗性基因,以及由移動基因元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因類型,并探討了畜禽養(yǎng)殖場通過糞便的土地利用引起環(huán)境中耐藥病原菌傳播的可能。本文著重從畜禽養(yǎng)殖抗生素使用到動物與環(huán)境中耐藥病原菌及其抗性基因?yàn)橹骶€進(jìn)行總結(jié)、討論,并對今后的研究重點(diǎn)和方向提出建議和展望,以期為合理使用獸用抗生素與重金屬、降低環(huán)境抗生素抗性傳播提供借鑒。
中國是抗生素生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)大國。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)2013年我國抗生素生產(chǎn)總量24.8萬t,國內(nèi)消耗16.2萬t,磺胺類、四環(huán)素類、氟喹諾酮類、大環(huán)內(nèi)脂類、β-內(nèi)酰胺類及其他分別占總用量的5%、7%、17%、26%、21%和24%,消耗的抗生素中48%用于人類,52%用于動物[22]。我國獸用抗生素的生產(chǎn)主要集中于山東、河南、河北、江蘇、四川等畜禽養(yǎng)殖大省[23]。飼料添加是獸用抗生素的重要組成部分。Coates等[24]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)飼料抗生素對無菌動物無明顯生長促進(jìn)作用,其作用機(jī)理在于抑制腸道有害微生物生長,減少對營養(yǎng)成分的競爭;還可使腸絨毛和腸壁變薄,進(jìn)而提高飼料的養(yǎng)分代謝率。我國農(nóng)業(yè)部在《飼料藥物添加劑使用規(guī)范》中將飼料添加抗生素分為2類,一類可在飼料中長時(shí)間添加使用,主要用于促進(jìn)動物生長;另一類是通過混飼給藥的飼料添加劑,用于防治動物疾病,規(guī)定了用量、用法和休藥期。第一類促生長抗生素包括聚醚離子載體類6種、多肽類5種、四環(huán)素類2種,另外包括砷制劑2種;而第二類防治動物疾病的抗生素包括大環(huán)內(nèi)脂類3種、氨基糖苷類4種、磺胺類3種、喹諾酮類2種、林可酰胺類1種等[25]。根據(jù)我國獸用抗生素的使用規(guī)范和文獻(xiàn)中其他種類獸用抗生素的使用情況,將其分類總結(jié)于表1。
作為允許飼料抗生素使用的國家之一,美國存在飼料抗生素普遍使用的現(xiàn)象。2011年美國食品和藥物管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA)報(bào)告指出,美國每年消耗的抗生素超過一半用于動物生產(chǎn)而非用于人類,其中獸用抗生素按消耗量排序依次為四環(huán)素類(5 643 t)、離子載體類(4 123 t)、青霉素類(880 t)、大環(huán)內(nèi)脂類(583 t)、磺胺類(371 t)、氨基糖苷類(214 t)、林可酰胺類(190 t)、頭孢菌素類(27 t)以及其他類(1 510 t)[26],其中用量最大的2類獸用抗生素與我國《飼料藥物添加劑使用規(guī)范》中第一類飼料添加劑種類相似。至今美國食品和藥物管理局仍允許抗生素作為生長促進(jìn)和疾病預(yù)防目的使用,僅以自愿方式減少抗生素的使用[27]。美國712個(gè)豬場的調(diào)研發(fā)現(xiàn),使用最多的獸用抗生素分別為四環(huán)素、卡巴多司、桿菌肽、泰樂菌素、安普菌素和林可霉素等種類,92.2%的抗生素是連續(xù)添加,而按飼養(yǎng)階段分類抗生素用量依次為保育豬>育成豬>育肥豬,但僅僅有12%的畜禽養(yǎng)殖場不使用抗生素飼料添加劑[28]。在不同飼養(yǎng)階段,抗生素的使用種類也存在差異。Apley等[29]統(tǒng)計(jì)了美國規(guī)模化豬場飼料抗生素使用情況,17種獸用抗生素中,保育豬較多使用金霉素、土霉素、替米考星,而育成豬/育肥豬較多使用金霉素、泰樂菌素和土霉素。實(shí)際飼養(yǎng)過程中,飼料抗生素在不同動物種類、飼養(yǎng)階段、添加量各有不同,詳見表2。例如,通常在生豬保育階段豬飼料中抗生素添加量高于其他飼養(yǎng)階段,即斷奶仔豬抗生素用量最大;而不同動物相比,豬的飼料抗生素添加量高于牛和雞,以單位動物產(chǎn)品估算,動物抗生素用量依次是豬>雞>牛[5]。
自1997年禁用安普霉素作為動物促生長劑(animal growth promoter)后,歐盟國家開始逐步擴(kuò)大動物促生長劑類抗生素的禁用范圍,到2006年全面禁用動物促生長劑類抗生素。雖然隨之發(fā)現(xiàn)治療類抗生素使用量出現(xiàn)增加趨勢,但獸用抗生素總用量降低了50%[27]。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì),2012年歐盟及歐洲經(jīng)濟(jì)區(qū)(26國)的獸用抗生素用量合計(jì)8 046.4 t,依次為德國(1 714 t)、西班牙(1 694.7 t)、意大利(1 543 t)、法國(778.4 t)和波蘭(518.3 t);折合單位動物產(chǎn)品抗生素用量排序依次為塞浦路斯、意大利、匈牙利、西班牙和德國,分別為396.5、341、245.5、242和204.8 mg·(population correction unit, PCU)-1;不同種類獸用抗生素用量所占比例依次為四環(huán)素類(44.2%)、青霉素類(18.3%)、磺胺類(14.5%)、大環(huán)內(nèi)脂類(9.1%)等[30],與我國和美國消耗的獸用抗生素類型較為相似。
如表3所示,重金屬(如銅、鋅、砷)通常作為礦物元素廣泛應(yīng)用于畜禽養(yǎng)殖,是重要的飼料添加劑,用于提高飼料轉(zhuǎn)化率、促進(jìn)動物生長、提高生產(chǎn)性能。我國和美國都允許飼料中添加重金屬[41-44],雖然歐盟國家已禁止促生長類抗生素的使用,但重金屬作為飼料添加劑仍被允許使用[6]。
不被吸收的重金屬以及代謝不完全的抗生素隨糞便、尿液排泄出來[31]。眾多研究表明養(yǎng)殖場抗生素、重金屬的排放與動物飼養(yǎng)過程抗生素的攝入有關(guān),豬糞和污水中的抗生素和重金屬主要源于飼料添加[32-33]。關(guān)于畜禽養(yǎng)殖場抗生素的排放已有廣泛研究,對養(yǎng)殖場周邊土壤、水體環(huán)境造成較大影響[31-32, 34-35]。
畜禽養(yǎng)殖場是病原菌及抗性基因的重要蓄積庫[45-46],但目前畜禽養(yǎng)殖源耐藥病原菌及其攜帶的抗性基因研究極為不足。畜禽養(yǎng)殖環(huán)境病原菌種類多樣,其中包含大量病原菌(如葡萄球菌、腸球菌、沙門氏菌等)。Ferreira等[5]測試了豬場廢水中總大腸菌群(total coliform, TC)、E. coli 數(shù)量分別為1.2×106、2.8×105MPN·(100 mL)-1。Resende等[9]測定牛場糞水中腸球菌和腸桿菌科細(xì)菌(Enterobactetiaceae )數(shù)量分別為3.71×105和4.42×108CFU·mL-1。Brooks等[45]采用定量PCR方法測試了育肥豬場廢水中沙門氏菌、彎曲桿菌數(shù)量分別為7.24×103、1.41×104copies·mL-1,豐度分別為8.51×10-7、1.66×10-6copies/16S rRNA。Tulayakul等[33]測試了豬場廢水中沙門氏菌的血清型檢出頻率最高的依次為Rissen、Anatum、Kedougou、Stanley、Typhimurium、Paratyphi B var. Java。
表1 獸用抗生素的種類、抑菌方式及抑菌類型Table 1 Type and antimicrobial mode of veterinary antibiotics
注:a分類依據(jù)《飼料藥物添加劑使用規(guī)范》[25],*表示《飼料藥物添加劑使用規(guī)范》規(guī)定的促生長類抗生素;**《飼料藥物添加劑使用規(guī)范》規(guī)定的防治動物疾病類抗生素;***表示文獻(xiàn)中常用獸用抗生素;G+表示革蘭氏陽性菌;G-表示革蘭氏陰性菌。
Notes:aClassification according to “Norms for Application of Feed Additives”[25]; * denotes animal growth promoting antibiotics defined in “Norms for Application of Feed Additives”; ** denotes disease control antibiotics defined in “Norms for Application of Feed Additives”; *** denotes other veterinary antibiotics from references; G+denotes Gram-positive bacteria; G-denotes Gram-negative bacteria.
表2 飼料抗生素的添加量
Table 2 Usage of antibiotics in feed for animal production
抗生素Antibiotics金霉素(Chlortetracycline)土霉素(Oxytetracycline)替米考星(Tilmicosin)泰樂菌素(Tylosin)金霉素(Chlortetracycline)金霉素a(Chlortetracyclinea)磺胺甲嘧啶a(Sulfamerazinea)青霉素a(Penicillina)卡巴多司(Carbadox)莫能霉素鈉b,c(Monensinsodiumb,c)維吉尼亞霉素b(Virginiamycinb)磷酸泰樂菌素c(Tylosinphosphatec)金霉素(Chlortetracycline)莫能霉素鈉d(Monensinsodiumd)泰樂菌素d(Tylosind)動物種類與飼養(yǎng)階段Animaltypeandgrowthstage保育豬Nurserypig育成/育肥豬Finisher/fatteningpig保育豬Nurserypig育成/育肥豬Finisher/fatteningpig保育豬Nurserypig育成/育肥豬Finisher/fatteningpig保育豬Nurserypig育成/育肥豬Finisher/fatteningpig哺乳豬Lactatingsow妊娠豬Gestatingsow育肥(日齡:18周)Fattening,ageat18weeks保育豬Nurserypig肉雞Boiler肉牛Beefcattle肉牛(12~15個(gè)月齡)Beefcattle,ageat12-15months使用量/(g·t-1)Consumption/(g·t-1)促生長Growthpromotion疾病預(yù)防Diseaseprevention疾病治療Diseasetreatment2504004001004004005045045050400400363181363-36336340401002040100-330--550-100-100-50-1050110-15-20-22-29.9-11-文獻(xiàn)References[29][36][37][38][39][40][41]
注:aASP250飼料添加劑包含金霉素、磺胺甲嘧啶和青霉素;b莫能霉素鈉與維吉尼亞霉素結(jié)合使用;c莫能霉素鈉與磷酸泰樂菌素結(jié)合使用;d莫能霉素鈉與泰樂菌素結(jié)合使用;-無有效數(shù)據(jù)。
Notes:aASP250 feed addictive in comprise of chlortetracycline, sulfamerazine, penicillin;bMonensin sodium and virginiamycin combined use;cMonensin sodium and tylosin phosphate combined use;dMonensin sodium and tylosin combined use; - not available.
表3 飼料中重金屬添加種類、作用及使用量Table 3 Category, function and dosage of heavy metals in feed summarized from literature
抗生素對動物腸道和糞便細(xì)菌具有選擇壓力,改變了細(xì)菌菌群結(jié)構(gòu)。Danzeisen等[39]的研究結(jié)果表明,莫能霉素(monensin)與維吉尼亞霉素(virginiamycin)或與泰樂菌素(tylosin)結(jié)合使用會顯著改變?nèi)怆u盲腸菌群結(jié)構(gòu),使E. coli 數(shù)量提高。Looft等[37]的研究表明,飼料中添加ASP250(金霉素、磺胺甲嘧啶、青霉素的混合物,見表3)使豬糞中變形菌門(Proteobacteria )的比例從1%提高到11%,其中E. coli 比例增加20至100倍。
除細(xì)菌菌群結(jié)構(gòu)改變以外,抗生素還對動物腸道、糞便細(xì)菌的耐藥性具有選擇壓力,提高了細(xì)菌耐藥水平。研究表明肉牛飼喂金霉素會顯著增加糞便中E. coli 和腸球菌的耐藥率[40]。氨芐西林用于仔豬飼養(yǎng),口服或注射(20 mg·kg-1body weight)都會顯著提高糞便中腸桿菌科細(xì)菌的耐藥性,注射抗生素的耐藥率從0.9%~12%升高至26%,口服抗生素的耐藥率提高至49%;口服抗生素會使糞便中blaTEM拷貝數(shù)從104~106copies·g-1升高至107~109copies·g-1,而注射對糞便中抗性基因的影響不顯著[47]。Looft等[37]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),飼料中添加金霉素、磺胺甲嘧啶、青霉素顯著提高了豬糞中四環(huán)素外排泵、A類β -內(nèi)酰胺酶、磺胺抗性、氨基糖苷磷酸轉(zhuǎn)移酶、兩類外排泵的抗性基因豐度。病原菌或潛在病原菌的耐藥性及攜帶的抗性基因在動物腸道、糞便、廢水中分布詳見表4。
目前我國和部分發(fā)達(dá)國家的相關(guān)職能部門定期開展動物源細(xì)菌的耐藥性測試。例如,我國農(nóng)業(yè)部開展了對畜禽養(yǎng)殖場、屠宰場的動物腸道、動物產(chǎn)品的動物源細(xì)菌耐藥性監(jiān)測,2013年涵蓋了15個(gè)畜禽養(yǎng)殖大省,細(xì)菌種類包括大腸桿菌、腸球菌、沙門氏菌、金黃色葡萄球菌、空腸彎曲桿菌、豬多殺巴氏桿菌和副豬嗜血桿菌;耐受藥物主要包括青霉素、鏈霉素、紅霉素、泰樂菌素、四環(huán)素、萬古霉素等主要抗生素種類[48],但我國動物源細(xì)菌耐藥性數(shù)據(jù)卻鮮有公開報(bào)道。美國疾病控制中心、農(nóng)業(yè)部、食品和藥物管理局定期聯(lián)合發(fā)布全國耐藥性檢驗(yàn)報(bào)告(National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System, NARMS),其中包括動物源細(xì)菌耐藥性檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果,并給出相關(guān)耐藥菌比例,如沙門氏菌由人類、屠宰雞、屠宰豬分離得到的多重耐藥率分別為9%、8%和16%[49]。
腸球菌和金黃色葡萄球菌是重要監(jiān)控的畜禽源革蘭氏陽性菌類型。動物飼喂泰樂菌素顯著提高了糞便中大環(huán)內(nèi)脂耐藥菌及其抗性基因的數(shù)量[50]。而畜禽糞便中分離得到的大環(huán)內(nèi)脂-林可酰胺-鏈陽霉素B(macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B, MLSB)多重耐藥菌可能與飼喂泰樂菌素有關(guān)[41],其中糞腸球菌(Enterococcus faecalis )具有MLSB多重耐藥性是質(zhì)粒pAMβ1攜帶的抗性基因erm B介導(dǎo)[12]。耐萬古霉素腸球菌(vancomycin-resistant enterococci, VRE)可能與飼料中添加的安普霉素有關(guān)[51],萬古霉素是治療腸球菌和金黃色葡萄球菌等革蘭氏陽性菌引發(fā)疾病的“最后抗生素”,美國疾病防控中心將VRE歸為“具有嚴(yán)重威脅”的耐藥菌,而動物源分離的VRE由van A介導(dǎo),具有萬古霉素和替考拉寧抗性[52],因此VRE傳播存在很大的疫病防治隱患。葡萄球菌也是重要的畜禽養(yǎng)殖源致病微生物,Neyra等[53]研究了屠宰場工人攜帶的金黃色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus )的耐藥性,發(fā)現(xiàn)由mec A編碼的甲氧西林耐藥率為14.3%,多重耐藥率為37.1%,主要耐受紅霉素、頭孢西丁、環(huán)丙沙星等抗生素,表明耐藥菌及抗性基因可能通過動物屠宰以及動物產(chǎn)品的途徑進(jìn)行傳播。
大腸埃希氏菌(大腸桿菌)、沙門氏菌、志賀氏菌等腸桿菌科(Enterobacteriaceae )革蘭氏陰性細(xì)菌也是重要的動物源致病菌,同時(shí)是食品源微生物的重要檢測與控制指標(biāo)。β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素包括青霉素類和頭孢菌素類,應(yīng)用廣泛。然而β-內(nèi)酰胺酶可由腸桿菌科細(xì)菌產(chǎn)生使抗生素失活。頭孢噻呋是用作動物疾病治療的第三代頭孢菌素,主要用于治療奶牛乳腺炎、動物呼吸道和腸道疾病[54-55],然而研究表明牛和豬在使用頭孢噻呋后糞便分離的大腸桿菌、沙門氏菌具有人用三代頭孢菌素(如頭孢曲松鈉)的抗性[13, 56]。Wu等[57]發(fā)現(xiàn)豬糞分離的E. coli 中普遍存在磺胺類抗性基因,其中sul 2(44%)檢出率高于sul 1(29%),sul 基因由不兼容質(zhì)粒(Inc)介導(dǎo),轉(zhuǎn)移接合率為82%。
表4 畜禽養(yǎng)殖源致病性耐藥菌種類與分布Table 4 Antibiotic resistant pathogens and the distributions from animal source
續(xù)表4細(xì)菌Bacteria樣品來源Samplesource抗生素藥物Antibiotics中介和耐藥比例/%Mediateandresistancelevel/%攜帶的抗性基因ThecarriedARGs國家、文獻(xiàn)Countryandreference沙門氏菌(Salmonella)(G-)屠宰動物和動物產(chǎn)品(Slaughteranimalandanimalproduct)豬糞便(Pigmanure)豬、雞、鴨糞便、屠宰場和零售產(chǎn)品拭子(Pig,chickenandduckmanure,slaughterhouseandretailproductswab)豬尸體、糞便、淋巴液拭子(Pigcarcass,manureandlymphswab)家禽腸道拭子(Poultryintestinalswab)鏈霉素(Streptomycin)、慶大霉素(Gentamincin)82.6aadA2、aacCA5、aadA7、aadB、catB3磺胺甲惡唑(Sulfamethoxazole)42.8dfrA1、dfrA12氨芐西林(Ampicillin)42.8blaPSE-1頭孢曲松鈉(CeftriaxoneSodium)6.0blaCMY頭孢噻吩(Cefalotin)98blaPSE-1、blaTEM-1、blaOXA-1、blaCMY-2磺胺甲惡唑(Sulfamethoxazole)41dfrA1硫酸粘桿菌素(Colistinsulfate)27.4-環(huán)丙沙星(Ciprofloxacin)1.7qnrB2、qnrB19埃塞俄比亞(Ethiopia)[69]美國(USA)[13]中國(China)[34]巴西(Brazil)[64]匈牙利(Hungary)[68]
注:a-用于采樣的滅菌棉拭子,b-無有效數(shù)據(jù),c具有甲氧西林耐藥性的金黃色葡萄球菌,d慶大霉素和安普霉素交叉抗性。
Notes:a- sterile swab for sampling,b-not available,cwith methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),dcross- resistance to gentamicin and apramycin.
Martínez等[16]指出移動基因元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因具有較高的傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。表5總結(jié)了由畜禽養(yǎng)殖源分離得到的移動基因元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因。細(xì)菌依靠基因移動元件(mobile genetic element, MGE)包括接合質(zhì)粒、轉(zhuǎn)座元件(轉(zhuǎn)座子和插入序列)和整合子發(fā)生基因的水平轉(zhuǎn)移[14]。Looft等[37]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),飼料抗生素(金霉素、磺胺甲嘧啶、青霉素)顯著提高了未添加抗生素(如氨基糖苷類)的抗性基因和多藥劑外排泵(multi-drug efflux)的豐度,這可能由于多種抗性基因位于同一移動原件上,由抗生素的協(xié)同選擇(co-selection)所造成。Chen等[41]指出飼喂泰樂菌素對牛糞中四環(huán)素抗性基因(tet A、tet G和核糖體保護(hù)類四環(huán)素抗性基因)具有協(xié)同選擇的作用。Kanwar等[62]發(fā)現(xiàn),與飼料中不添加金霉素相比,添加金霉素會顯著增加牛糞中blaCMY-2和blaCTX-M的豐度,可能存在金霉素對頭孢菌素類抗性基因的協(xié)同選擇作用。雖然農(nóng)業(yè)部及藥品監(jiān)管部門限制了獸用抗生素的使用種類,但其協(xié)同選擇作用可能引起人用抗生素(如第三代頭孢菌素、萬古霉素)的抗性水平提高。然而,協(xié)同選擇不僅發(fā)生在抗生素之間,Seiler等[6]指出重金屬對抗生素抗性基因具有協(xié)同選擇作用。協(xié)同選擇的原因之一為某種抗性基因編碼的酶或蛋白具有提高細(xì)胞耐受多種抑菌物質(zhì)(如抗生素或重金屬)的能力,如多重藥劑外排泵(multi drug efflux pumps),可以將毒性物質(zhì)迅速排出細(xì)胞外[11, 14]。另一方面,2種或多種抗性功能的基因相互鄰近并在同一個(gè)移動基因元件上[70],如豬糞中分離的質(zhì)粒pMC2,攜帶了大環(huán)內(nèi)脂、四環(huán)素等抗生素抗性基因和汞、鉻等重金屬抗性基因,具有很強(qiáng)的移動和接合能力[71]。由于重金屬與抗生素的協(xié)同選擇作用,增加了抗生素抗性傳播的控制難度和抗性基因研究的復(fù)雜程度,而由移動基因元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因是相關(guān)研究的重點(diǎn)。
Binh等[72]的研究表明,豬糞中分離的接合質(zhì)粒包括IncP-1、pHV216-like、IncN、IncW,其中IncN比例最高(34%),攜帶阿莫西林、磺胺嘧啶的抗性基因分別為bla TEM、sul 1、sul 2、sul 3。
整合子是重要的基因移動元件,在豬糞及其施用的土壤中廣泛存在。Agers?等[73]的研究表明,33%豬糞分離的革蘭氏陰性菌、17%豬糞分離的革蘭氏陽性菌、5%土壤分離的革蘭氏陰性菌、12%土壤分離的革蘭氏陽性菌攜帶一類整合子,其中土壤中攜帶一類整合子的菌屬分別為假單胞菌、產(chǎn)堿桿菌、棒狀桿菌、節(jié)桿菌;豬糞中攜帶一類整合子的菌屬分別為E. coli 、腸桿菌、節(jié)桿菌等。
Zhang等[74]研究了不同養(yǎng)殖來源E. coli 中由整合子介導(dǎo)抗性基因的分布特征,發(fā)現(xiàn)只有雞場分離的E. coli 攜帶二類整合子(int I2),int I2攜帶的基因盒長度為2 400 bp,介導(dǎo)的抗性基因序列dfr A1-sat 1-aad A1-orf X,轉(zhuǎn)移接合率為69.2%;int I1攜帶介導(dǎo)的抗性基因序列分別為aad A23B、aad A2、arr -3-dfr16等,基因盒長度為1 009~2 000 bp小于int I2攜帶的基因長度,轉(zhuǎn)移接合率74.8%。
表5 畜禽養(yǎng)殖源移動基因元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因Table 5 ARGs mediated by mobile gene elements in animal source
注:a質(zhì)粒上攜帶轉(zhuǎn)座子和插入序列,- 無有效數(shù)據(jù)。
Notes:aThe plasmid contained transposon and insertion sequence, - not available.
諸多研究表明,腸球菌攜帶的銅抗性基因(tcr B和cue O)與四環(huán)素、大環(huán)內(nèi)脂、萬古霉素、氨芐西林的抗性基因具有協(xié)同轉(zhuǎn)移(co-transfer)的特點(diǎn),這可能因?yàn)樗鼈兾挥谕换蛞苿釉蟍75-76]。Amachawadi等[77]的研究表明,肉牛飼料中礦物元素銅添加量的增加(10 mg·kg-1提高到100 mg·kg-1)顯著提高了糞便中耐銅屎腸球菌(Enterococcus faecium )豐度(P <0.05),抗銅基因tcr B由接合質(zhì)粒介導(dǎo)并同時(shí)攜帶四環(huán)素和大環(huán)內(nèi)脂類抗性基因tet M和erm B,與糞腸球菌(Enterococcus faecalis )種間水平轉(zhuǎn)移率為2.0×10-5。Cavaco等[78]發(fā)現(xiàn)由豬場和肉牛場分離的耐甲氧西林金黃色葡萄球菌(MRSA)同時(shí)攜帶抗鋅表型和抗鋅基因(czr C),表明飼料中添加鋅可能促進(jìn)MRSA的出現(xiàn),促進(jìn)其傳播。由基因移動元件介導(dǎo)的抗生素抗性基因及其對重金屬響應(yīng)的研究還較為不足,由于重金屬對抗生素抗性基因的協(xié)同選擇作用,在重金屬飼料添加使用方面應(yīng)更為謹(jǐn)慎。
抗性基因及基因移動元件從畜禽養(yǎng)殖場向外界傳播途徑如圖1所示,主要傳播途徑包括畜禽養(yǎng)殖人員的暴露,畜禽產(chǎn)品的造成食品加工人員的暴露,以及畜禽糞污還田利用造成環(huán)境和人群的暴露。畜禽糞便、肉質(zhì)產(chǎn)品中賦存的病原菌耐藥水平及其抗性基因類型已在表4進(jìn)行了總結(jié),且畜禽養(yǎng)殖人員和食品加工者在抗生素抗性中的暴露主要是對小范圍人群的影響。然而畜禽糞污還田利用使糞污中攜帶的耐藥病原菌以及基因移動元件暴露于土壤、徑流,使抗性污染從養(yǎng)殖場傳播至外界環(huán)境,存在較大的疾病傳播和公共健康隱患。然而該傳播機(jī)制尚不明確[19],今后有待深入研究。
圖1 抗性基因和移動基因元件從畜禽(以禽類為例)養(yǎng)殖場向公共環(huán)境的傳播[81]
畜禽廢棄物中賦存的病原菌在還田過程仍會長時(shí)間存活,不同細(xì)菌在土壤中的賦存時(shí)間不同。Jacobsen等[82]指出養(yǎng)殖場及周邊環(huán)境是沙門氏菌的多發(fā)環(huán)境,沙門氏菌主要通過糞便、廢水的還田利用向土壤環(huán)境傳播,而沙門氏菌在土壤中可存活數(shù)周甚至數(shù)月。Piorkowski等[83]的研究結(jié)果表明,牛糞水還田后E. coli 消減1 log需要約40~50 d,消減2 log則需要約60~76 d。Wang等[84]的研究表明,E. coli O157:H7在土壤中平均存活時(shí)間為2.1~3.6 d,而沙質(zhì)土、低pH值、低有機(jī)碳含量的土壤中E. coli O157:H7賦存時(shí)間較短。
畜禽養(yǎng)殖廢棄物還田利用可能引起耐藥病原菌進(jìn)入土壤環(huán)境,使土壤中細(xì)菌耐藥性和抗性基因豐度提高。Pourcher等[17]將恩諾沙星飼喂的雞糞施用于農(nóng)田土壤,發(fā)現(xiàn)在前35天腸桿菌科細(xì)菌豐度有所提高之后逐漸恢復(fù)本底水平,而耐恩諾沙星E. coli 由雞糞引入,可在土壤中存活89 d以上。Cook等[85]研究了雞糞還田后腸球菌的演變,發(fā)現(xiàn)腸球菌在土壤中90%消減時(shí)間需要7.41 d,施肥后148 d土壤中腸球菌仍維持在2~3 log CFU·g-1,土壤中抗性基因tet W、sul 1、str B在施肥148 d后仍無法恢復(fù)本底水平。Bech等[86]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)大腸桿菌和四環(huán)素耐藥菌會在糞水還田的土壤中持續(xù)存活46~49 d。
畜禽養(yǎng)殖廢棄物的排放或土地利用導(dǎo)致周邊環(huán)境(土壤、河流)病原菌耐藥水平的提高。West等[18]指出鄰近畜禽養(yǎng)殖場的河流雖然常規(guī)水質(zhì)指標(biāo)滿足標(biāo)準(zhǔn),但糞大腸桿菌具有較高的多重耐藥菌率(41.6%),比其他河流高25.1%,所攜帶的tet B、tet C由質(zhì)粒介導(dǎo)可以與鼠傷寒沙門氏菌(Salmonella tyhimurium )間發(fā)生接合轉(zhuǎn)移。Chee-Sanford等[88]發(fā)現(xiàn)豬場氧化塘下游250 m仍可測得四環(huán)素抗性基因tet M,養(yǎng)殖場四環(huán)素耐藥菌主要為腸球菌、葡萄球菌、羅伊氏乳桿菌(Lactobacillus reuteri )。Chen等[41]研究了福建閩江流域E. coli 的耐藥性,畜禽糞便可能是該流域抗生素耐藥率高的重要因素,分離的大腸桿菌中41%攜帶一類整合子,整合子的基因盒攜帶aad A1、drf A1、drf A27、arr -3等抗性基因。
畜禽養(yǎng)殖廢水澆灌蔬菜引起蔬菜攜帶抗性基因和耐藥菌的研究較少,然而該途徑可能是畜禽養(yǎng)殖源抗性基因進(jìn)入食物鏈的途徑之一,但相關(guān)研究非常缺乏。Yang等[88]對施用雞糞種植的蔬菜內(nèi)生菌進(jìn)行了耐藥性測試,發(fā)現(xiàn)在芹菜、小白菜、黃瓜中頭孢氨芐耐藥菌的比例分別為16.9%~86.33%、21.76%~91.31%和0.21%~0.44%,蔬菜內(nèi)生菌具有抗生素抗性的原因可能是耐藥菌通過土壤進(jìn)入植物,或者由于土壤中抗性基因被植物吸收,這需要進(jìn)一步研究。Hofmann等[89]采用FISH-CLSM研究病原菌在植物根際的寄生位置,發(fā)現(xiàn)植物表皮細(xì)菌及內(nèi)生菌中存在沙門氏菌等病原菌,與糞便相比,廢水農(nóng)田利用存在更大的病原菌傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。Reuland等[90]檢測了荷蘭零售蔬菜中超廣譜β-內(nèi)酰胺酶(extended beta-lactamase, ESBL)腸桿菌科細(xì)菌,發(fā)現(xiàn)6%的蔬菜檢測到ESBL腸桿菌科細(xì)菌,其攜帶的抗性基因包括blaCTX-M-15、blaCTX-M-14、blaCTX-M-1、blaSHV-12,作者推測這可能與畜禽糞便的還田利用有關(guān),進(jìn)而引起了抗性基因沿食物鏈的傳播。Marti等[91]發(fā)現(xiàn),施用豬糞的蔬菜表皮抗性基因的檢出率較高,包括IncP ori V、sul 2、tet (BT)、erm A/F、qnr B、blaPSE和blaOXA-20等抗性基因,指出直接食用蔬菜是人類接觸土壤耐藥菌和抗性基因的途徑之一。
(1)我國是獸用抗生素生產(chǎn)和使用大國,盡管已出臺獸用抗生素種類與用量的相關(guān)規(guī)定,但抗生素的實(shí)際使用水平及其對耐藥性影響仍鮮有公開報(bào)道。更為嚴(yán)格的抗生素使用規(guī)范是大勢所趨,全面、系統(tǒng)的抗生素使用與耐藥性數(shù)據(jù)有利于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的修訂。
(2)畜禽糞便、廢水是病原菌和抗性基因的重要蓄積庫。應(yīng)深入研究病原菌具有的耐藥表型和攜帶的抗性基因,建立抗生素使用與病原菌耐藥性、抗性基因的聯(lián)系,有利于合理用藥,從而降低病原菌的耐藥水平。
(3)應(yīng)深入研究由基因移動元件介導(dǎo)的抗性基因,尤其在重金屬的協(xié)同選擇作用下,加強(qiáng)其在病原菌之間發(fā)生的水平轉(zhuǎn)移效率、抗性傳播風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的機(jī)制研究,從誘導(dǎo)腸道、糞便中的耐藥病原菌入手,深入研究飼料中重金屬的添加閾值。
(4)畜禽養(yǎng)殖糞便、廢水從養(yǎng)殖場通過還田利用、灌溉等途徑進(jìn)入環(huán)境,由移動基因元件介導(dǎo)且宿主為人類病原菌的抗性基因存在較大的公共健康威脅,然而從畜禽養(yǎng)殖場到環(huán)境的抗性傳播機(jī)制尚不明確,應(yīng)深入研究建立從畜禽養(yǎng)殖場至公共環(huán)境全過程的抗性污染控制鏈條。
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Veterinary Antibiotics Use, Occurrence of Antibiotic Resistance Pathogen and Its Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Animal Production: An Overview
Sui Qianwen1, Zhang Junya1, Wei Yuansong1,3,*, Chen Meixue1, Dong Hongmin2, Xiong Jihai3
1. State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China 2. Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China 3. Institute of Energy, Jiangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanchang 330096, China
Veterinary antibiotics play an important role in animal growth promotion and disease control in food-animal production. Over a half of total antibiotics is used in animal industry. Antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and their spread risk caused by the animal industry have drawn widely attention. China is the biggest country of animal industry and veterinary antibiotics consumption in the world, but many gaps exist about veterinary antibiotics use, antibiotic resistance level of pathogens and their carried ARGs, which are difficult for the control of antibiotic resistance pathogens and its spread risk. Through literature review, the veterinary antibiotic use of China and other developed countries were summarized, the AR level of pathogenic bacteria and the carried ARGs, mobile genetic elements, as well as the spread risk of AR pathogenic bacteria to environment were analyzed. Therefore the purposes of this paper are to provide support for improving rational drug use and reducing the spread risk of antibiotic resistance pathogens, and establishing the linkage of antibiotic resistance pollution from animal production to public environment.
veterinary antibiotics; heavy metal; antibiotic resistance pathogenic bacteria; antibiotic resistance genes; mobile genetic element
公益性行業(yè)(農(nóng)業(yè))科研專項(xiàng)經(jīng)費(fèi)課題(No. 201303091);國家“水體污染控制與治理”科技重大專項(xiàng)課題(2012ZX07202-005;2015ZX07203-007);江西省科學(xué)院省院協(xié)同創(chuàng)新團(tuán)隊(duì)(2014-SYXTCX-02);國家自然科學(xué)基金(No. 41501513);國家自然科學(xué)基金(No. 21577161)
隋倩雯(1986-),女,博士后,研究方向?yàn)樾笄蒺B(yǎng)殖廢水生物處理及抗性基因減控,E-mail:suiqianwen@163.com;
*通訊作者(Corresponding author), E-mail: yswei@rcees.ac.cn
10.7524/AJE.1673-5897.20150922001
2015-09-22錄用日期:2015-10-21
1673-5897(2015)5-020-15
X171.5
A
魏源送(1969—),男,環(huán)境工程博士,研究員,研究方向污水處理與再生利用、污泥處理與資源化、抗生素抗性基因的轉(zhuǎn)歸與控制,已在國內(nèi)外刊物發(fā)表學(xué)術(shù)論文130余篇。
隋倩雯, 張俊亞,魏源送,等.畜禽養(yǎng)殖過程抗生素使用與耐藥病原菌及其抗性基因賦存的研究進(jìn)展[J]. 生態(tài)毒理學(xué)報(bào),2015, 10(5): 20-34
Sui Q W, Zhang J Y, Wei Y S, et al. Veterinary antibiotics use, occurrence of antibiotic resistance pathogen and its antibiotic resistance genes in animal production: An overview[J]. Asian Journal of Ecotoxicology, 2015, 10(5): 20-34 (in Chinese)